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Mechanical  Equipment  of 
School  Buildings 


HAROLD  L.  ALT,  M.  E. 


MILWAUKEE 
THE  BRUCE  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


Copyright  1916 
The  Bruce  Publishing  Company 


Introductory  Note 

THE  chapters  of  this  book  appeared  origi- 
nally as  a  serial  in  the  American  School 
Board  Journal  and  the  interest  aroused  among 
school  board  authorities  and  architects  has  led 
to  the  present  republication  in  a  more  per- 
manent form. 

Schoolhouse  design  and  construction  have 
advanced  remarkably  during  the  past  genera- 
tion due  largely  to  the  intensive  study  of 
architects  and  engineers  who  have  specialized 
in  this  branch  of  building  and  have  developed 
a  large  body  of  well  tested  theory  and  prac- 
tice. It  has  been  the  privilege  of  the  author 
to  share  in  this  development  as  a  designing 
and  supervising  engineer  and  more  recently  as 
a  consultant  of  school  boards  and  architects. 
The  book  is  therefore  the  outgrowth  of  ex- 
perience and  wide  observation  of  successful 
domestic  engineering  as  applied  to  school 
buildings.  ^  q  ^ 


357309 


Table  of  Contents 


Chapter  I.  Page 

Heating  and  Ventilating — Business  Organization  in  Schoolhouse  Construction — General 
Principles  of  Heating  and  Ventilation — Types  of  Ventilating  Systems — Location 
of  Supply  and  Exhaust  Openings  in  Classrooms 7 

Chapter  II. 
Ducts  and  Flues — Types  of  Duct  Systems — Arrangement  of  Flues — Breathing  Walls 13 

Chapter  III. 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Special  Rooms — Assembly  Rooms — Down  and  Up  Systems  of 

Ventilation — Automatic  Temperature  Control 19 

Chapter  IV. 

Ventilating  Toilets  and  Laboratories — Methods  of  Installing  Toilet  Exhaust  Systems — 

Exhaust  Systems  for  Chemical  Laboratory  Hoods — School  Kitchen  Ventilation .  .     25 

Chapter  V. 

Toilet  Fixtures — Traps — Vitreous  Ware  Fixtures — Types  of  Closets — Ventilation  of  Fix- 
tures— Flushing  Devices 32 

Chapter  VI. 

Plumbing  Fixtures — Flush  Valves — Urinals — Ventilation  of  Urinals — Types  of  Bubbling 

Fountains — Sinks 37 

Chapter  VII. 

Number  and  Location  of  Fixtures— Basement  Toilet  Rooms — Types  of  Toilet  Room  Ar- 
rangement— Methods  of  Figuring  Number  of  Fixtures — Special  Arrangement  of 
Toilet  Rooms 43 

Chapter  VIII. 
Toilet  Partitions  and  Shower  Baths — Types  of  Partitions — Types  of  Shower  Bath  Stalls — 

Arrangement  of  Stalls — Metal  Fittings 48 

Chapter  IX. 
Water  Supply  Systems — Types  of  Pneumatic  Systems — Gravity  Systems — Water  Filters 

and  Sterilizers — Pumps — Pressure 54 

Chapter  X. 
Hot  Water  Systems— Down  Feed  and  Up  Feed  Systems — Methods  of  Heating  Water — 

Control  of  Hot  Water  Systems — Mixing  Valves — Forced  Circulation 61 

Chapter  XI. 

Fire    Protection — General    Equipment — Sprinkler    Systems — Standpipes- — Fire    Pumps — 

Hand  P'ire  Extinguishers 68 

Chapter  XII. 

Drinking    Water — Water    Coolers — Refrigeration    Systems — Ammonia    Systems — Special 

Drinking  Fountains 73 


Chapter  XIII.  Page 

Sewage  Disposal — Septic  Tank  Systems — Operation  and  Arrangement  of  Septic  Tanks — 

Disposal  Fields 78 

Chapter  XIV. 
The  School  Power  Plant — Economy  of  the  School  Power  Plant — Typical  Arrangement  of 

Plant — Boilers  and  Engines — Electric  Current 84 

Chapter   XV. 
The  School  Swimming  Pool — General  Considerations — Cleanliness — Filters  and  Sterilizers — 

Arrangement  of  Pools — Waterproofing 90 

Chapter   XVI. 
Pool     Equipment — Water     Heaters — Circulation     Pumps — Filters — Electric     Sterilizers — 

Rules  for  Operating  Pools 95 

Chapter   XVII. 
Electric  Lighting — The  Need  of  Illuminating  Systems — Types  of  Lighting — ^Types  of  Fix- 
tures— Standards  of  Light  Intensity — Location  of  Lighting  Outlets — Illumination 
of  Special  Rooms 99 

Chapter   XVIII. 
Vacuum    Cleaning — High    and    Low   Vacuum    Systems — Floor   Outlets — Arrangement    of 

Piping — Special  Pipe  Fittings — Types  of  Vacuum  Cleaning  Machines 104 


Mechanical  Equipment  of  School  Buildings 


CHAPTER  I 


Heating  and  Ventilation 


The  school  laws  of  every  state  in  the  Union 
make  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  proper 
schoolhouses  the  first  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant duties  of  school  boards.  The  laws  recog- 
nize tacitly  that  while  the  schoolhouses  are  only 
a  physical  accessory  to  the  education  of  future 
citizens,  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that  neither 
children  nor  teachers  can  perform  their  respec- 
tive part  in  the  educational  process  unless  the 
schoolhouses  are  convenient,  sanitary,  safe  and 
comfortable. 

To  school-board  members  and  citizens  individ- 
ually, the  educational  aspect  of  erecting  and 
equipping  schoolhouses  may  not  appear  as  an 
intimate  duty  so  much  as  the  more  vexing  duty 
of  securing  funds  and  of  using  those  funds  to 
the  best  advantage.  The  pecuniary  problems  in 
turn  are  not  less  troublesome  to  members  of 
school  boards  than  the  actual  architectural  and 
engineering  problems,  bound  up  as  they  are 
with  the  educational  demands  of  teachers  and 
superintendents,  the  hygienic  requirements  of 
sanitarians  and  the  limitations  of  knowledge 
and  experience  on  the  part  of  the  members 
themselves. 

Several  millions  of  dollars  of  the  taxpayers' 
money  are  spent  every  year  on  new  buildings, 
and  whether  this  vast  amount  is  spent  wisely  or 
unwisely  is  dependent,  almost  entirely,  on  the 
wisdom  and  care  of  the  school  boards.  Consid- 
ering the  fact  that  comparatively  few  members 
ever  have  previous  experience  in  construction 
work  of  any  kind  beyond,  perhaps,  the  erection 
of  their  own  homes,  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
various  communities  thruout  the  country  are  not 
loaded  up  with  a  large  number  of  well-meant, 
but  absolutely  unfit,  school  buildings.  That  this 
is  not  80  is  due,  without  doubt,  to  the  pains- 
taking attention  given  by  the  average  board  in 
handling  building  problems.  Still,  even  care 
cannot  produce  the  results  obtained  by  exper- 
ience. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  and  succeeding  chap- 
t<^^s  to  present  to  school-board  members,  both  in- 
dividually and  collectively,  the  various  problems 
arising  in  almost  every  new  schoolhouse  which 
is  erected  and  to  discuss  these  problems  with 


their  solutions  in  a  simple,  plain  and  straight- 
forward manner  easily  appreciated  by  the  un- 
initiated. 

It  is  not  desired  to  enter  into  the  discussion 
of  the  arrangement  or  construction  of  school 
buildings  so  much  in  this  book  as  it  is  to  dis- 
cuss the  equipment  and  mechanical  end.  The 
erchitectural  end  should  be  left  to  the  architect 
selected  by  the  board  with  the  school  board  act- 
ing as  an  advisory  and  criticising  committee. 
The  school  board  which  tries  to  undertake  the 
erection  of  a  sediool  building  without  an  arch- 
itect is  not  only  going  to  get  into  a  lot  of  diffi- 
culties but  will  end  up  by  wasting  the  public 
money. 

Yet  the  employing  of  an  architect  will  not 
necessarily  solve  all  the  problems.  The  modern 
school  has  developed  into  such  a  distinctive 
type  of  building  that  problems  ordinarily  solved 
by  standard  methods  in  other  structures  require 
totally  different  treatment  for  school  use.  The 
boards  thruout  the  country  should  employ  not 
only  competent  architects  but  should  assist  the 
architects  after  they  are  employed  by  turning 
over  the  responsibility  of  the  mechanical  equip- 
ment to  engineers,  thoroly  experienced  in  such 
work.  "The  best  is  the  cheapest"  in  the  long 
run  and  the  best  engineer  is  the  one  whose  ex- 
perience on  schools  has  been  the  largest  and 
most  successful.  No  school  board  can  go  wrong 
in  following  this  procedure  and  the  larger  the 
building  the  greater  the  emphasis  which  must 
be  laid  on  this  point. 

Even  then,  the  boards  should  be  familiar  with 
the  various  points  involved  as  in  almost  every 
instance  they  make  the  final  decision  as  to 
the  results  justifying  the  expenditure  and  un- 
less they  know  what  the  results  will  be  and  the 
value  of  such  results  there  is  great  chance  of 
financial  waste. 

In  Fig.  1  is  shown  the  normal  business  or- 
ganization of  school  construction  and  one  which 
gives  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Here  the 
school  community  appoints  the  school  board 
which  in  turn  selects  the  site  and  the  architect 
end  engineer.  The  site  (according  to  the  safe 
bearing  load  of  the  soil)  determines  the  foun- 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  1. 


BUSINESS  ORGANIZATION  IN  SCHOOLHOUSE 
CONSTRUCTION. 


dntion  and  the  architect  must  not  be  held  re- 
srtonsible  for  expensive  foundations  necessitated 
by  poor  bearing  soil.  All  school  boards  should 
take  borings  to  determine  the  character  of  the 
vinder  strata  before  purchasing  as  the  necessity 
of  expensive  foundations  will  often  make  a 
higher  priced  site  really  cheaper. 

After  the  contracts  are  let  the  engineer  con- 
trols the  heating,  plumbing  and  lighting  con- 
tractors' work,  while  the  masonry,  carpentry, 
steel,  painting,  plastering,  roofing  and  miscel- 
laneous work  is  under  the  control  of  the  archi- 
tect. The  work  of  these  contractors  is  united 
to  form  a  finished  and  complete  building,  and 
all  disputes  are  carried  back  thru  the  architect 
or  engineer  to  the  school  board  for  judgment. 
It  is  better  that  the  engineer  be  selected  and 
appointed  by  the  board  as  he  is  then  better  able 
to  serve  the  board's  interest  alone  than  when  he 
is  selected  by  the  architect  and  is  therefore  un- 
der obligations  to  him.  It  goes  without  saying, 
however,  that  the  selection  of  an  engineer  who 
is  antagonistic  to  the  architect  is  not  good  busi- 
ness policy  since  they  must  co-operate. 

Let  us  take  first  the  matter  of  heating  and 


ventilation  since  this  is  the  most  important  of 
all  the  mechanical  contracts  amounting  from  ten 
to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  the  build- 
ing. Of  course,  the  problem  of  ventilation  con- 
sists of  supplying  a  reasonable  and  proper 
amount  of  fresh  and  warmed  air  to  each  class- 
room and  other  occupied  rooms  in  such  a  way 
as  to  least  inconvenience  the  occupants  and  so 
as  to  produce  the  most  beneficial  results.  After 
this  air  has  been  breathed  or  otherwise  con- 
taminated the  logical  continuation  of  the  prob- 
lem consists  of  the  removal  of  such  foul  air 
from  the  locations  where  it  naturally  collects, 
thus  raaintaining  a  circulation  in  the  atmos- 
phere. 

Before  the  subject  of  ventilation  can  be  in- 
telligently considered  the  composition  of  the 
atmosphere  must  be  noted,  together  with  the 
changes  produced  which  render  it  unfit  for  fur- 
ther use. 

In  the  first  place,  air  is  a  mixture  of  gases 
being  normally  about  one  part  nitrogen  and 
four  parts  oxygen  with  some  ozone  and  car- 
bonic acid  gas;  besides  this  there  are  usually 
present  small  quantities  of  ammonia,  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acid,  floating  organisms  and  inor- 
ganic matter,  together  with  various  local  im- 
purities. 

The  oxygen  is  by  far  the  most  important  of 
the  various  gases,  it  being  the  gas  required  both 
in  combustion  and  respiration.  The  nitrogen 
serves  as  a  dilutent  of  the  oxygen  and  does  not 
enter  actively  into  any  of  the  processes  in  which 
we  are  interested. 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  while  in  itself  not  especi- 
ally harmful,  is  a  sort  of  gauge  on  the  purity  of 
the  air.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that,  while 
in  the  open  country  the  proportion  of  this  gas 


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Fig.  2.     PLAIN  FAN  APPARATUS. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 


9 


is  only  3  to  6  parts  in  10,000,  in  the  process  of 
respiration  its  proportion  is  increased  in  almost 
direct  ratio  with  other  more  harmful,  but  less 
easily  detected,  impurities.  Therefore,  the  pro- 
portion of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  almost  an  in- 
variable indication  of  the  degree  of  foulness 
reached  by  the  air. 

It  is  a  generally  accepted  standard  that  not 
less  than  30  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  minute 


This  much  being  decided  upon,  the  board 
must  next  decide  if  the  air  is  to  be  supplied 
exactly  as  it  comes  from  the  outside — dust 
laden,  smoky  or  odorous  as  it  often  is  —  or 
whether  money  shall  be  spent  for  a  filter  or  air 
washer. 

In  Fig.  2  a  ventilating  apparatus,  or  "fan 
room  arrangement"  as  it  is  often  termed,  is 
shown  in  which  no  modification  of  the  air  is 


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Fig.  3.     FAN  AND  COKE  SCREEN. 


Ap^\\\V\VVV\\V\VV^V\^\V\V\V'v^VV^^\\\V'^V\\Vv.V\SV.VS 


Fig.  4.     FILTER  SCREEN  AND  FAN. 


should  be  supplied  for  each  pupil  in  a  classroom 
— in  fact,  this  is  required  by  law  in  some  states. 
Another  authority  gives  50  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute for  high  schools  and  40  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute in  grammar  schools.  It  is  not  just  apparent 
why  the  high  school  student  who  generally  is  in 
the  building  for  a  shorter  period,  should  be  thus 
favored.  From  practical  experience  and  general 
practice  no  school  board  will  go  wrong,  or  can 
even  be  subject  to  criticism,  in  adopting  the 
80  cubic  foot  standard. 


made  beyond  that  of  raising  its  temperature 
slightly  by  the  "tempering  heater."  Then  it 
goes  to  the  "fan"  and  is  pumped  thru  the 
"heater,"  which  warms  it,  into  ducts  to  the 
classrooms.  In  Fig.  3  a  coke  screen  is  shown, 
this  consisting  of  vertical  wire  mesh  partitions 
12  in.  or  18  in.  apart,  between  which  coke  is 
placed  and  the  air  drawn  thru  the  mass.  The 
filtration  obtained  by  this  method  is  not  partic- 
ularly effective  and  the  process  of  cleaning  tht- 
filter  is  difficult. 


10 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


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Fig.  5.     AIR  WASHER  AND  FAN. 


In  Fig.  4  a  cloth  filter  is  shown  which  con- 
sists of  a  large  number  of  frames,  across  which 
cheese  cloth  is  stretched  as  a  massive  strainer 
and  thru  which  the  air  is  drawn  before  being 
sent  to  the  rooms.  The  filter  will  not  do  any- 
thing beyond  catching  the  larger  dust  particL^S; 
etc.,  which  would  otherwise  be  carried  along 
with  the  air,  but  it  is  easier  to  clean  and  pre- 
ferable to  the  coke  filter. 

Fig.  5  shows  an  "air  washer"  which  is  a  de- 
vice for  washing  the  air  by  means  of  a  fine 
water  spray  that  removes  not  only  dust  but 
also  a  large  proportion  of  smoke  and  odors  which 
at  times  may  be  carried  in  from  the  outside. 
Besides  this,  the  air  washer  can  be  procured 
with  a  regulating  device  which  maintains  the 
humidity  or  moisture  in  the  air  at  any  desired 
degree,  doing  away  with  the  excessively  dry  and 
Ijarching  steam  heat  effects  ordinarily  experi- 
enced. By  all  means  install  an  air  washer  un- 
less financial  limitations  absolutely  prohibit  its 
use.  Fig.  6  shows  an  elevation  of  Fig.  5  giving 
an  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  apparatus  when 
properly  set  on  foundations. 


In  order  to  properly  introduce  the  fresh  air 
into  a  schoolroom  and  also  to  withdraw  the  foul 
air,  the  location  of  the  supply  and  exhaust  open- 
ings must  be  carefully  determined.  Of  course, 
the  main  object  is  to  circulate  all  the  air  in 
the  room,  or  to  put  it  another  way,  to  circulate 
air  in  all  portions  of  the  room,  while  a  secondary 
object  is  to  circulate  the  air  in  such  a  manner 
as  not  to  make  air  currents  disagreeable  or 
even  perceptible. 

Let  us  take  Fig.  7  which  shows  the  plan  of  a 
typical  small  room  with  the  approximate  cir- 
culation of  air  indicated  by  arrows  between  the 
supply  and  exhaust  registers — which  are  located 
fairly  close  together.  It  will  be  seen  that  owing 
to  the  narrowness  of  the  room  this  arrangement 
is  fairly  good  but  entirely  out  of  place  when 
a  room  is  of  greater  width,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8, 
v/here  fully  two-thirds  of  the  room  is  stagnant. 

In  Fig.  9  is  shown  the  normal  method  of 
treating  standard  sized  classrooms  for  say  40 
or  50  pupils.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the 
amount  of  stagnant  area  is  comparatively  small. 
The  diagrams  hold  reasonably  true  regardless  of 


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Fig.  6.     SIDE  VIEW  OF  AIR  WASHER  AND  FAN. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 


11 


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Fig.  7.     Plan   of   schoolroom   showing  effect    of   locating 
supply  and  exhaust  openings  near  one  corner  of  narrow  room. 


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Fig.   9.     Plan  of  schoolroom  showing    effect   of    locating 
supply  and  exhaust  openings  at  inner  corners. 


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Ceiling 


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Fig.  8.  Plan  of  schoolroom  showing  effect  of  locating 
supply  and  exhaust  openings  near  one  corner  of  large,  square 
room. 


Fig.  10.     Section  of  classroom  showing  effect  of  locating 
both  supply  and  exhaust  openings  at  floor  line. 


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Fig.  11.     Section  of  classroom  showing  effect  of  locating 
both  supply  and  exhaust  openings  above  breathing  line. 


Fig.  12.  Section  of  classroom  showing  effect  of  locating 
supply  opening  above  breathing  line  and  exhaust  opening  at 
floor  line. 


12 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


the  height  of  the  openings  above  the  floor,  but 
the  exact  motion  of  the  air  is  affected  by  the 
movement  of  the  occupants,  the  opening  and 
closing  of  doors,  the  shape  of  the  inlet  and  the 
velocity  of  the  entering  air. 

In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a"  typical  room  in  eleva- 
tion with  both  the  supply  and  exhaust  openings 
at  the  floor.  It  will  be  seen  that  with  such  an 
arrangement  the  circulation  is  likely  never  to 
reach  the  "breathing  line,"  BL,  which  is  the 
approximate  level  from  which  the  air  is  drawn 
into  the  lungs.  In  Fig.  11  a  similar  effect  is 
shown  with  both  openings  located  about  8  ft. 
0  in.  above  the  floor. 

Fig.  12  shows  the  circulation  with  the  supply 
register  8  ft.  0  in.  above  the  floor  and  the  vent 
outlet  at  the  floor.  It  can  readily  be  appreciated 
that  this  is  the  best  method  for  circulating  verti- 


cally across  the  breathing  line,  and  is  known  as 
"downward  ventilation"  since  the  general  move- 
ment of  the  air  is  in  this  direction.  The  re- 
versing of  the  supply  and  exhaust  openings 
would  result  in  a  similar  effect  but  in  an  upward 
direction  being  known  as  "upward  ventilation." 
This  is  seldom  used,  however,  (owing  to 
draughts  produced  at  the  floor)  except  in  audi- 
toriums. The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  11 
is  the  regular  standard  generally  adopted. 

A  combination  of  Fig.  9  and  Fig.  11  produces 
the  best  all-around  results;  that  is,  the  supply 
inlet  should  be  at  one  end  of  the  rooms  about 
8  ft.  0.  in.  above  the  floor  to  avoid  draughts  be- 
low the  head  line,  and  the  vent  outlet  should  be 
at  the  other  end  of  the  room  close  to  the  floor. 
No  draught,  of  course,  is  ever  felt  in  front  of 
a  vent  outlet. 


A  TYPICAL  CLASSROOM. 


CHAPTER  II 


Ducts  and  Flues 


After  the  manner  of  treating  the  air  at  its 
intake  and  the  method  of  introducing  it  into 
the  rooms  have  been  decided,  there  still  remains 
the  matter  of  conveying  the  air  from  the  fan 
room  to  the  classrooms  and  of  disposing  of  the 
foul  air  which  is  withdrawn  at  the  exhaust 
registers — in  other  words  the  duct  system. 

In  connection  with  fan  operated  ventilation 
systems  there  are  three  general  distribution 
methods  in  use.  These  are  known  as  the  "trunk 
line"  or  single  duct  system,  the  "double  duct" 
or  hot-and-cold-air  system  and  the  "individual 
duct"  or  separate  duct  system.  The  differences 
between  these  three  methods  are  readily  per- 
ceived by  reference  to  the  figures  accompany- 
ing this  cliapter. 

In  Fig.  13  is  shown  a  plan  view  of  a  trunk 
line  system  in  which  the  main  duct  is  run  on 
the  basement  corridor  ceiling  and  supplies  risers 
to  the  various  rooms,  these  risers  being  con- 
cealed in  a  double  wall  (called  a  "breathing 
wall")  from  the  first  floor  up. 

In  Fig.  14  is  shown  an  elevation  of  this  sys- 
■  tem  which  makes  clear  the  manner  of  tempera- 
ture regulation  of  the  air  and  also  the  limita- 
tions of  such  regulation.  The  air  is  assumed 
in  this  case  to  have  already  passed  thru  a 
tempering  heater  which  raises  the  temperature 
to  a  little  above  freezing  point  before  it  enters 
the  fan.  It  is  then  discharged  by  the  fan  both 
directly  thru  the  heater  and  also  under  the 
heater  by  means  of  the  bypass  shown.  The  air 
passing  below  the  heater  is,  of  course,  un- 
affected by  the  heater  while  the  air  passing  thru 


the    heater    has    its    temperature    raised    to    a 
rather  high  degree. 

The  air  furnished  the  classrooms  is  a  mixture 
of  these  two  hot  and  cold  currents  of  air  which 
is  controlled  by  the  damper  in  the  bypass  under 
the  heater  which  produces  a  combined  tempered 
air  supply — all  the  tempered  air,  however,  being 
of  the  same  temperature  and  delivered  to  the 
classrooms  thru  the  flues  and  outlets  indicated. 

This  system,  while  the  cheapest  to  install, 
has  its  chief  drawback  in  the  fact  that  a  class- 
room on  the  north  side  of  the  building  will  be 
supplied  with  air  at  exactly  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  one  on  the  south  side.  Similarly,  a  room 
on  the  windy  side  and  a  room  on  the  sheltered 
or  lee  side  will  receive  exactly  the  same  service. 
This  is  radically  wrong  as  the  rooms  will  require 
air  of  temperature  at  considerable  variance  to 
maintain  the  proper  68  or  70  degrees  Fahr.  in 
each. 

It  is  often  necessary  or  cheaper  to  connect 
the  bottom  of  the  vertical  flues  with  a  duct  run 
near  the  base  and  then  to  unite  the  ducts  at  the 
fan  room.  A  plan  of  this  kind  is  shown  in 
Fig.  15.  This  splitting  up  of  the  main  duct 
does  not  alter  the  character  of  the  system,  as 
a  trunk  line  system,  since  this  type  may  be  de- 
fined as  a  system  which  supplies  all  the  flues 
(vertical  risers)  from  a  main  duct  or  branch, 
the  air  being  all  of  the  same  warmth  as  its 
temperature  is  determined  in  the  fan  room.  Of 
course,  a  trunk  line  may  have  auxiliary  heaters 
placed  in  the  base  of  several  flues  which  will 


C/oss  7?oomj 
obowc 


Figure  13. 

13 


14 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fir  a  t  Flo  or-y  F/cies  to  7?ooins- 

^~~X : : r-7 r ; — -. ^  .    * . 


7,  *  -  '  *        ^    & 


Fig.   14. 


,o^-.®  ',  /<;: ."^y.  o.'.v  'o''o. '-«.''.«  /o'-  *,'} 


C/ossTZooma 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


vary  the  temperature  in  the  individual  flue,  but, 
in  general,  the  above  definition  holds. 

The  double  duct  system  really  consists  of  two 
trunk  lines,  one  above  the  other,  in  plan  view 
appearing  the  same  as  the  ordinary  trunk  lines 
shown  in  Figs.  13  and  15.  In  elevation,  how- 
ever, as  shown  in  Fig.  16,  there  is  a  radical 
difference. 

The  air  is  blown  partially  thru  the  heater  and 
partially  thru  the  bypass  under  the  heater. 
There  is  no  damper  in  the  bypass  so  that  the 
air  passing  below  the  heater  enters  the  lower 
duct  unhampered  while  the  air  passing  thru 
the  heater  enters  the  upper  duct,  which  has  to 


be  made  large  enough  to  supply  all  the  air  neces- 
sary in  extremely  cold  weather.  Any  modification 
of  this  hot  air,  which  it  is  desired  to  obtain  in 
milder  weather,  or  for  protected  rooms,  is 
procured  by  the  use  of  mixing  dampers  located 
at  the  base  of  each  flue,  these  dampers  being 
arranged  to  gradually  cut  off  the  warm  air  sup- 


7?ooms 


Fig  17. 


DUCTS  AND  FLUES 


15 


r/ae  ^oKoom 


Duct 


^  Co/c/A/>  ''\Uuct 


Fig.  18. 

ply  and  open  up  the  cold  air  inlet  from  the 
lower  duct.  Typical  arrangements  of  this  kind 
are  sho'wn  in  Figs.  17  and  18. 


vital  consideration  as  it  may  require  the  drop- 
ping of  the  whole  basement  floor  level  a  foot 
or  more  in  order  to  obtain  proper  headroom. 

To  obviate  the  disadvantages  of  the  trunk 
line  and  double  duct  systems  the  individual  duct 
system  has  been  devised.  So  far  as  piping  goes, 
this  system  resembles  the  common  hot-air  fur- 
nace, each  flue  or  room  having  an  individual 
supply  duct  carried  back  to  the  heater.     (Fig. 

19.) 

The  temperature  of  the  air  in  this  system  is 


Fig.  19. 


rirsrr/oor 


f/ues  toJ^ooms  - 


Duct 


-JIofj4/r  Chamber 
CoMAitChombe/' 


t  '  t,  .       «         *       « 


S/=iSE/^£-/^T  Co/^/T'/ao/z 


r'/oor-^ 


'»v.-tf*-''>:-o  i<>;'  ov-i'-'i 


•A      .    •  •    <4' 


!>»..•  •<.•..'■•«.■ 


Fig.  20 


The  air  in  the  lower  duct  is  usually  at  a 
temperature  of  35  to  40  degrees  Fahr.  in  ex- 
treme cold  weather,  as  in  this  case  also  all  air 
is  previously  drawn  thru  a  tempering  heater. 
When  the  outside  temperature  rises  above  35  to 
40  degrees  the  tempering  heater  is  shut  off  and 
the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  lower  duct  is 
then  the  same  as  the  outside  air.  The  cold  air 
duct  is  usually  made  from  50  to  66  2-3  per  cent 
of  the  size  of  the  hot  air  duct. 

It  can  be  seen  that  the  double  duct  system 
renders  possible  the  control  of  the  temperature 
of  the  air  to  each  room  by  the  use  of  the  mix- 
ing dampers  but  the  headroom  in  the  basement 
is  cut  down  by  a  little  more  than  the  exact 
height  of  the  second  duct.    This  is  often  a  most 


regulated  at  the  heater  (as  in  a  trunk  line  sys- 
tem) but  is  governed  by  the  double  damper  ar- 
rangement  (similar  to  that  in  a  double  duct 

Fifsf  F/oorj       

f-     'if-         -  • - "    ■  * -  ■  ■    ■■«    ..'^f 


r^ 


rTTTTTTTTmrTfTTHIl 


B/13£M£A/r  COf?RIDOf^ 


•  .o    •  -.o  .«,•.•„■■»» 


Fig.  21. 


16 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


»\;.  '.'■•^.'."■■rr  «  <:•  «'I'  <a  r*^.'« '».*•?■•■■<» ■.'V-°:vg^';Q\^ 


Vc^f  Space 


Figure  23. 

system)  indicated  in  the  elevation  of  this  sys-  temperature  regardless  and  independent  of  every 
tem  (Fig.  20),  this  being  done  separately,  how-  other  room  in  the  building.  The  mixing 
ever,  for  each  and  every  duct.  dampers  are  controlled  by  thermostats  in  the 
This  arrangement  permits  each  and  every  various  rooms  which  throw  the  dampers  auto- 
classroom    to    receive   air   at   its    own   required  matically  and  maintain  (if  the  room  radiators 


DUCTS  AND  FLUES 


17 


are  similarly  controlled)  a  temperature  varying 
not  to  exceed  three  degrees. 

Since  classrooms  for  a  given  school  in  gen- 
eral seat  about  the  same  number  of  pupils,  it 
follows  that  most  of  the  flues  will  be  a  certain 
standard  size  and  only  those  of  larger  or  smaller 
rooms  will  be  of  odd  size.  This  fact  makes 
possible  the  compact  arrangement  on  the  base- 
ment ceiling  indicated  in  the  cross  section  of 
the  basement  corridor  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

It  would  seem  at  first  that  the  cost  of  an  in- 
dividual duct  system  would  greatly  exceed  that 
of  a  trunk  line  or  double  duct  system,  but  such 
has  not  proved  to  be  the  case  in  practice.  This 
system  can  be  designed  so  that  the  difference  in 
cost  on  a  heating  contract  involving,  say,  $10,- 
000.00  to  $20,000.00  would  not  exceed  $300.00 
to  $800.00  according  to  the  design.  This  is 
owing  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  smaller  ducts 
can  be  constructed  of  lighter  gauge  metal,  do 
not  require  bracing  like  the  larger  trunk  lines. 


Certain  advantages  are  secured  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  flues  in  the  breathing  walls  to 
supply  fresh  air  from  the  basement  and  ex- 
haust foul  air  from  the  attic.  One  of  these  is 
the  saving  of  space  in  the  breathing  wall  which 
is  often  very  crowded  owing  to  numerous  open- 
ings for  doors,  chutes,  pipe  shafts,  etc.  As 
shown  in  Fig.  22  (which  is  a  cross  section  of  a 
typical  breathing  wall)  the  space  used  for  a 
supply  flue  going  to  the  first  floor  could  be 
utilized  for  an  exhaust  flue  from  the  second  or 
third  floor  to  the  attic,  while  a  supply  flue  stop- 
ping at  the  second  floor  could  be  used  as  an 
exhaust  space  for  a  third  floor  exhaust  flue.  If 
both  the  supply  and  exhaust  were  carried  to  the 
basement  this  would  of  course  be  impossible 
and  would  overcrowd  the  breathing  wall  at  the 
lower  floors  with  just  double  the  number  of 
flues. 

An  elevation  of  three  typical  classrooms  one 
above  the  other  is  shown  in  Fig.  23  with  the 


Fig.  24. 


and  can,  to  a  great  extent,  be  built  in  the  shop 
where  all  facilities  for  quick  completion  are  at 
hand. 

This  system  is  at  present  being  installed  in 
the  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  High  School,  in  the 
Montclair,  N.  J.,  High  School,  the  Schenley 
High  School  of  Pittsburgh,  and  many  others; 
no  school  board  should  allow  any  other  to  be 
used  unless  forced  by  financial  limitations. 

Flues  are  vertical  air  pipes  run  usually  in  the 
breathing  walls  so  as  to  be  concealed.  In  almost 
all  cases  the  warm,  fresh-air  flues  come  from  the 
basement  and  the  vent  flues  go  to  exhaust  fans 
in  the  attic.  A  few  schools  are  arranged  to 
have  both  the  supply  and  exhaust  flues  run  to 
the  basement.  None  are  arranged  with  the  sup- 
ply flues  run  to  the  attic  as  this  necessitates 
carrying  the  large  steam  pipes  for  the  heaters 
from  the  boilers  (which  are  always  in  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  building)  up  to  the  attic  level 
and  also  places  the  heaters  where  they  are  not 
accessible  for  the  engineer. 


customary  flue  runs  and  outlets.  Of  course  a 
slight  advantage  in  air  circulation  would  be 
obtained  if  the  supply  outlets  could  be  located 
close  to  the  left  hand  wall  similar  to  the  loca- 
tion of  the  vent  outlets  at  the  other  side.  This 
is  a  manifest  impossibility  unless  the  door  to 
the  room  is  thrown  practically  into  the  center 
of  the  wall  which  is  generally  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. 

In  the  vent  space  above  the  classrooms  are 
placed  discharge  fans  which  draw  the  air  out 
of  the  vent  space  and  discharge  it  into  the  outer 
air  where  it  is  dissipated. 

Oftentimes  cases  are  met  with  where  the 
amount  of  money  available  or  appropriated  for 
a  school  building  does  .not  nearly  cover  the  work 
involved  so  that  rigid  cutting  of  many  desirable 
features  is  imperative.  In  such  cases  the  ten- 
dency is  to  turn  toward  what  is  known  as  grav- 
ity heating.  The  writer  of  these  articles  does 
not  feel  justified  in  advocating  this  system 
which  consists  of  bringing  in  a  cold  air  supply 


18 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


to  a  heater  set  near  the  base  of  the  flue,  as  de- 
tailed in  Fig.  24,  the  hot  air  rising  in  the  flue 
by  expansion,  after  being  heated. 

The  sliding  damper  on  the  chain  is  one 
method  of  controlling  the  air  temperature  in 
the  flue,  the  rising  of  the  damper  cutting  off 
the  hot  air  coming  from  the  heater  and  at  the 
same  time  opening  up  the  cold  air  bypass  under 
the  heater.  Thus  the  tempered  air  in  the  flue 
can  be  graduated  to  any  desired  degree  within 
reasonable  limits.  Of  course,  the  operation  of 
this  system  depends  entirely  on  the  tendency  of 
warm  air  to  rise,  and  therefore  the  circulation 
is  better  in  extremely  cold  weather  than  at  any 


other  time.  Such  a  system,  altho  producing 
fair  results  at  times,  is  dependent  too  much  on 
outside  weather  conditions.  It  is  never  possible 
to  say  that  any  certain  amount  of  air  per  pupil, 
is  introduced  into  a  room  as  the  amount  con- 
stantly varies  with  the  wind  and  outside  tem- 
perature. It  is  not  impossible  to  even  have  a 
strong  wind  reverse  the  air  flow  in  a  classroom 
from  its  supply  register  into  an  exhaust,  driv- 
ing all  the  bad  air  in  the  room  back  into  the 
fresh  air  duct  and  thence  into  some  other  class- 
room. More  than  this  the  gravity  system  lacks 
sufficient  motive  power  to  allow  the  use  of  air 
filters  or  even  air  washers. 


■ 

■ 
1 

1 

■fiLjUH^^^^^P'^l^^^^lH'^'^^HI^Hir^^u^      '  ^^ 

1 

Ji    mS^^^^^ff^mll^^K^^^^^^^^h^H-'LJMl 

■^^ 

A  TYPICAL  HIGH  SCHOOL  AUDITORIUM.     SCHENLEY   HIGH  SCHOOL,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 


CHAPTER  III 


Heating  and  Ventilating  Special  Rooms 


The  first  step  in  the  traiisitioai  wihicli  occurs 
in  scboolhouses  between  the  common  cliassroom 
and  the  auditorium,  is  the  enlarged  classroom 
or,  as  it  is  generally  termed,  "study  room".  This 
is  often  obtained  by  simply  omitting  the  parti- 
tion between  two  of  the  common  classrooms  thus 
making  the  study  room  of  approximately  twice 
the  size  of  the  ordinary  room.  Since  the  study 
room  will  then  be  of  the  same  width  but  twice 
the  length  of  the  regular  classroom,  it  may  be 
ventilated  in  the  same  manner  so  long  as  the 
distance  is  not  increased  between  the  registers 
and  the  outside  w^all.  The  increase  in  length  is 
taken  care  of  by  installing  double  the  number 
of  registers  in  order  to  obtain  good  distribution 
of  air — for  instance,  two  supply  registers  (or, 
one  of  twice  the  normal  size)  might  be  placed 
in  the  wall  about  the  middle  of  the  room  and 
an  exhaust  outlet  at  each  end.  This  arrange- 
ment can  also  be  reversed,  if  desired,  and  a 
supply  register  placed  at  each  end  of  the  room 
with  a  double  exhaust  outlet  in  the  middle. 

The  next  step  toward  the  auditorium  is  the 
"assembly  room"  or  "school  hall"  which  is 
usually  larger  than  a  study  room  and  is  gen- 
erally equipped  with  a  platform  or  small  stage. 
The  width  of  the  assembly  room  is  often  greater 
than  the  study  room  so  that  registers  on  one 
side  of  the  room  are  not  sufficient  to  throw  the 
air  across  and  properly  supply  the  farther  side 
of  the  room.  For  this  reason  supply  and  ex- 
haust registers  are  generally  placed  on  both 
sides  of  the  room.  Where  a  stage  or  platform 
is  installed  the  registers  should  be  changed 
somewhat  to  accommodate  the  occupants  of  the 
platform  and  also  to  take  care  of  the  low  por- 
tion of  the  hall,  this  being  especially  important 
if  the  floor  is  inclined  so  as  to  form  a  pocket 
in  front  of  the  stage.  In  this  case  wall  supply 
registers  should  be  located  eight  feet,  or  so, 
above  the  stage  level  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
exhaust  shouM  be  taken  out  from  registers  lo- 
cated in  the  vertical  front  of  the  stage  and  at 
the  lowest  part  of  the  floor  level.  In  fact,  the 
entire  front  of  many  stages  and  platforms  is 
turned  into  a  continuous  line  of  registers,  the 
balance  of  the  exhaust  air  being  drawn  off  by 


other  registers  located  at  the  floor  level  in  the 
middle  and  rear  of  the  hall. 

Since  halls  and  study  rooms  are  usually  of 
one,  or,  at  the  most,  one-and-a-half  story  height, 
they  should  be  supplied  with  the  same  amount 
of  air  per  minute  per  pupil  as  the  ordinary 
classroom.  With  an  auditorium  running  up 
two,  three,  or  even  four  stories  high  the  large 
amount  of  air  contained  will  usually  help  out 
to  a  considerable  extent  the  amount  required 
for  ventilation  so  that  unless  the  auditorium  is 
intended  to  be  continuously  occupied  for  three 
or  four  hour  periods  a  supply  of  20  cubic  feet 
per  minute  per  occupant  is  sufficient;  but  for 
long  period  use  the  supply  should  not  be  less 
than  the  standard  thirty  cubic  feet. 

It  is  impossible  to  go  into  the  proper  means 
of  ventilating  the  auditorium  in  all  phases  of 
its  developmemit  in  a  book  of  this  size  but  to 
show  the  progress  being  m'ade  in  this  line  it  is 
desired  to  call  attention  to  a  high  school  recently 
under  oonstruiction,  the  auditorium  of  which 
is  shown  at  successive  levels  in  Figs.  25  to  29 
inclusive.  This  school  has  cost  about  $750,- 
000,  and  has  probably  the  most  carefully  ven- 
tilated auditorium  of  any  school  in  the  country. 
In  the  plan  shown  in  Fig.  25  is  given  a  view 
of  the  vent  space  under  the  floor  of  the  audi- 
torium (this  space  being  seven  or  eight  feet 
high)  and  underneath  which  is  located  an  ap- 
paratus room  with  the  fans,  air  washers,  heat- 
ing coils,  motors,  etc.  The  air  is  supplied  by 
a  fan  situated  in  the  apparatus  room  which  dis- 
charges into  the  large  duct  marked  "from  sup- 
ply fan"  and  the  air  is  exhausted  thru  the  other 
large  duct  marked  "to  exhaust  fan".  The  bad 
air  is  gotten  rid  of  by  the  exhaust  fan  discharg- 
ing it  into  the  duct  marked  "discharge"  which 
leads  to  the  outer  air. 

In  the  main  floor  plan  (Fig.  26)  are  shown  a 
large  number  of  small  black  circles,  these  being 
floor  openings  with  mushrooms  so  as  to  con- 
nect the  floor  with  the  vent  space  below  at  every 
other  seat,  while  under  the  balcony  registers  are 
placed  in  the  gallery  ceiling  as  shown  in  dotted 
lines. 

A  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  27  of  the  vent  space 


19 


20 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


/:i> 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  SPECIAL  ROOMS 


21 


in  the  balcony  with  the  balcony  floor  removed 
and  the  ducts  connecting  to  the  registers  in  the 
ceiling  under  the  balcony  indicated.  In  Fig. 
28  is  shown  a  plan  of  the  balcony  with  the 
mushroom  inlets  the  same  as  the  ground  floor. 
Fig.  29  gives  the  vent  space  above  the  audi- 
torium ceiling  and  shows  the  connections  to  the 
ventilating  girdle  a  cross  section  of  which  is 
given  in  Fig.  30.  This  girdle  allows  air  to 
enter  the  auditorium  all  around  its  entire  length 
and  also  serves  to  conceal  a  row  of  electric 
lights  for  indirect  illumination. 

The  pipe  coils  shown  in  Fig.  29  are  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  roof  slab  warm  over  the 
auditorium  as  experience  has  proven  that  where 
the  air  is  properly  humidified  the  presence  of  a 
cold  ceiling  is  liable  to  cause  condensation. 
These  coils  together  with  radiators  shown  in 
Tigs.  26  and  27  make  it  possible  to  keep  the 
auditorium  warm  during  periods  of  dis-use  and 
also  to  heat  it  up  prior 
to  time  of  use  without 
the  expenditure  of  elec- 
tric power  to  circulate 
the  air;  that  is,  the  heat- 
ing is  accomplished  in 
all  normal  weather  by 
direct  radiation  without 
the  use  of  the  ventilat- 
ing air,  and  it  is  not 
necessary  to  start  either 
the  supply  or  exhaust 
fan  until  the  occupants 
are  actually  assembled. 
This  cuts  the  electric 
power  down  to  a  mini- 
mum and  is  a  most  eco- 
nomical operating  ar- 
rangement. While  in 
many  auditoriums  the 
heating  is  accomplished 
entirely   by   the   hot   air 

these  are  not  as  economical  to  operate  unless 
kept  constantly  in  use  and  even  then  require 
more  electric  power  than  auditoriums  supplied 
with  direct  radiators. 

It  will  be  noted  in  the  plan  Fig.  25  that  a 
revolving  damper  is  shown.  This  damper  is 
arranged  so  that  all  the  fresh  air  supply  going 
to  the  auditorium  above  is  carried  thru  on  one 
side  of  the  damper  and  all  the  exhaust  air  com- 
ing from  the  auditorium  is  carried  thru  the 
otiier  side.     The  damper  is  arranged  in  such  a 


way  that  one  of  the  large  ducts  is  connected  to 
all  ceiling  registers,  the  light  girdle  and  other 
openings  above  the  floor,  while  the  other  duct 
is  connected  to  the  vent  spaces  under  the  main 
floor  and  under  the  gallery  floor  into  which  all 
mushrooms  and  other  floor  outlets  are  connected. 
A  simple  turn  of  this  damper  will  change  the 
supply  fan  so  that  the  fresh  air  will  enter  all 
of  the  top  outlets  while  the  exhaust  air  is  pulled 
out  of  the  floor  outlets  by  the  exhaust  fan. 
Reversing  the  damper  causes  a  reverse  of  the 
entire  system — that  is,  the  fresh  air  is  then 
directed  into  the  vent  space  beneath  the  audi- 
torium floor  and  under  the  gallery  floor  issuing 
into  the  auditorium  thru  the  mushrooms  while 
at  the  same  time  the  foul  air  is  withdrawn  from 
the  ceiling  registers  under  the  gallery  and  the 
light  girdle  in  the  ceiling,  changing  in  the  brief- 
est possible  time  from  what  is  termed  the  "down- 
supply"  system  into  an  "up-supply"  system. 


Fig.  29. 

Now  the  desirability  of  this  will  not  at  first 
Le  apparent  until  it  is  remembered  that  the 
presence  of  a  large  audience  in  an  auditorium 
makes  the  problem  one  of  cooling  rather  than 
heating.  This  at  first  would  seem  to  require 
only  that  the  radiators  be  shut  off  and  the  ven- 
tilating air  be  allowed  to  enter  at  a  low  enough 
temperature  to  accomplish  the  desired  cooling 
effect.  While  this  in  reality  would  accomplish 
the  cooling  required,  the  cold  air  falling  on 
the  unprotected  heads  of  the  audience  results 


22 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


It'oofy 

Duc/'Connec/zony 
Ver?/ 


A  vrnTORiUT^ 

Fig.  30. 

in  unpleasant  and  dangerous  draughts  quite 
similar  to  those  obtained  from  opening  an  out- 
side window,  except  perhaps  that  they  are  of 
greater  volume  and  not  so  low  a  temperature. 
The  result,  however,  is  decidedly  undesirable. 
This  can  be  obviated  by  simply  turning  the 
damper  when  the  temperature  in  the  auditorium 
begins  to  rise  enough  to  demand  cold  air  and 
feeding  air  from  the  bottom.  This  air  does  not 
come  in  at  low  enough  temperature  to  cause 
discomfort  to  the  feet  and  lower  portions  of  the 
body  which  are  better  protected  against  the  cold 
than  the  head  and  neck.  By  the  time  the  cooler 
air  his  risen  to  the  breathing  line  it  has  been 
more  or  less  tempered  both  by  the  bodily  heat 
and  the  mixture  with  the  air  already  in  the 
room  so  that  it  is  not  only  less  noticeable  but  the 


draft  dropping  towards  the  floor  has  been  en- 
tirely eliminated. 

If  the  reader  is  not  familiar  with  what  is 
meant  by  a  mushroom  in  the  floor  a  reference 
to  Fig.  31  will  indicate  its  construction  clearly. 
The  ordinary  mushroom  is  six  inches  in  diam- 
eter. 

The  school  boards  who  place  direct  radiators 
in  their  buildings  including  the  auditorium  and 
supply  air  for  ventilation  only  have  the  most 
economical  system  to  operate.  Those  who  install 
the  reverse  damper  in  their  auditorium  systems 
have  not  only  the  most  economical  but  at  the 
same  time  the  most  satisfactory  system. 


Fig.  31. 


Fig.  32. 

All  that  has  been  said  regarding  heating  sys- 
t'frms  in  the  foTegodng  diapters  has  been  stated 
with  a  presumption  that  automatic  regulation 
will  be  installed.  By  this  it  is  meant  that  on 
each  radiator  will  be  placed  a  valve  similar  to 
that  shown  in  Fig.  32,  and  that  each  mixing 
damper  will  be  controlled  by  an  air  motor  sim- 
ilar to  that  shown  in  Fig.  33.  It  has  been 
proven  that  it  is  an  absolute  impossibility  to 
maintain  proper  temperature  thruout  a  school 
v.'here  the  radiators  or  in  fact  any  other  source 
of  heat  must  be  controlled  by  the  individual 
teacher  or  by  the  janitor.     This  is  largely  due 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  SPECIAL  ROOMS 


23 


Ifot 


Douh/e 
DofTfper 


Aif  Motor 


Fig.  34. 

to  the  personal  preferences  of  the  various  indi- 
viduals in  charge  of  the  rooms,  some  preferring 
a  cool  room  perhaps,  65°  or  even  lower,  and 
others  preferring  a  hot  room,  75°  or  slightly 
higher.  Trouble  is  also  caused  by  the  teachers 
neglecting  to  maintain  proper  temperature  when 
interested  in  their  other  duties.  An  immense 
amount  of  school  money  is  wasted  because  the 
average  teacher  when  feeling  warm  finds  it 
much  easier  to  pull  the  window  down  from  the 
top  or  raise  it  from  the  bottom  than  to  go 
around  and  manipulate  two  or  three  radiator 
valves.    Thus,  the  heat  obtained  by  burning  coal 


under  the  boiler  is  radiated  in  room  after  room 
vrhere  it  is  not  required  simply  because  it  is 
impossible  to  force  the  attention  of  those  in 
charge  to  the  difficult  proposition  of  keeping 
their  thermometers  between  68  and  70  degrees. 

Automatic  regulation  is  obtained  generally  by 
compressed  air  which  is  run  thru  the  building 
in  very  small  pipes,  to  instruments  located  in 
each  room,  called  thermostats.  These  thermo- 
stats are  adjustable  so  that  they  will  (at  any 
desired  temperature)  open  a  valve  in  the  air 
line.  This  valve  permits  the  compressed  air  to 
enter  a  pipe  which  connects  to^  diaphragm  valves 
on  the  radiators  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig. 
32.  The  air  operates  the  valve  in  one  direction 
and  a  spring  in  the  other.  When  the  tempera- 
ture gets  too  hot  the  thermostat  closes  off  the 
radiator  and  saves  the  school  board's  steam. 

At  the  same  time  the  temperature  oi  the  ven- 
tilating air  (if  supplied  thru  a  double  duct 
system  with  a  mixing  damper,  or  thru  the  indi- 
vidual duct  system  with  similar  equipment)  is 
also  changed.    The  compressed  air  enters  the  air 


^UT 


/    \ 


ki± 


Fig  33. 


Fig.  35. 


24 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  36. 

motor  shown  in  Fig.  33  thru  the  pipe  P,  raising 
the  diaphragm  D,  which  moves  the  plate  T  and 
raises  the  lever  L  which  is  pivoted  at  point  C. 
The  lever  L  is  connected  to  the  mixing  damper 
lod  at  R  and  moves  the  dampers  so  as  to  shut 
off  the  hot  air  and  turn  on  the  cold  air  if  the 
room  is  too  warm  and  vice  versa  if  the  tem- 
perature is  too  low.  When  the  air  supply  is 
cut  off  the  spring  S  brings  the  lever  arm  back 
to  its  original  position.  The  method  of  con- 
necting up  one  of  these  air  motors  to  move  the 
dampers  in  the  flues  is  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

The  steam  which  is  saved  by  such  eiiuipment 
is  prevented  from  leaving  the  boiler  and  raises 
the  pressure  so  that  the  damper  regulator  shown 
in  Fig.  35  will  shut  the  damper  in  the  main 
boiler  flue  and  thus  check  the  fires.  This  dam- 
per regulator  is  nothing  but  a  cylinder  C  in 
which  the  piston  R  is  pushed  up  by  the  steam 
pressure,  the  pressure  point  at  which  it  moves 
being  determined  by  the  number  of  weights 
which  are  piled  on  S. 

It  can  easily  be  seen  that  with  this  equip- 
ment a  rise  in  temperature  outside  of  the  build- 


ing or  the  heating  up  of  the  rooms  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  pupils  conserves  the  steam  the  in- 
stant it  is  possible  without  underheating  the 
rooms.  In  fact,  it  is  claimed  that  automatic 
regulation  has  been  known  to  save  25  per  cent 
of  the  fuel  which  would  otherwise  have  been 
lest. 

In  Fig.  36  is  shown  a  photograph  of  ther- 
mostatic control  applied  to  a  radiator,  while 
Fig.  37  shows  an  air  motor  controlling  two 
dampers  such  as  are  used  in  the  double  duct 
system. 


Figure  37. 


CHAPTER  IV 


Ventilating  Toilets  and  Laboratories 


Possibly  of  even  greater  importance  than  the 
air  supplied  to  and  exhausted  from  classrooms 
is  the  method  of  ventilation  employed  in  the 
toilets,  since  this  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  the 
health  of  the  pupils.  It  is  a  well-grounded 
theory  that  no  fresh  air  should  be  supplied  to 
a  room  in  which  odors  of  any  sort  are  created. 
This  applies  not  only  to  toilet  rooms  but  to 
locker  rooms,  kitchens  and  all  other  apartments 
which  are  operated  under  similar  conditions. 
The  reason  for  this  is  apparent  when  we  con- 
sider the  condition  which  results  from  not  sup- 
plying such  a  room  with  fresh  air,  altho  at  first 
glance  this  treatment  seems  likely  to  result  in 
just  the  opposite  effect  from  that  desired. 

When  a  room  is  not  supplied  with  fresh  air 
and  when  at  the  same  time  air  is  withdrawn, 
a  condition  is  created  and  maintained  which  is 
known  as  an  "unbalanced  air  pressure" — that  is 
to  say,  the  air  within  the  room  (owing  to  the 
resultant  partial  vacuum),  is  of  slightly  less 
pressure  than  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  As 
a  result  of  this,  every  crack  and  leakage  space 
thru  which  air  can  pass  between  the  room  and 
either  the  surrounding  apartments  or  the  out- 
side of  the  building  carries  an  air  current  pass- 
ing inward  toward  the  room  in  an  effort  to 
make  up  this  unbalanced  condition.  The  room 
in  this  case  really  becomes  an  actual  partial 
vacuum  of  very  limited  degree  and  draws  air 
into  it  from  every  side;  this  also  results  in  an 
inward  draft  when  the  door  is  opened  instead  of 
a  current  of  air  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Under  all  normal  conditions  where  air  is  ex- 
hausted from  a  toilet  room  and  no  fresh  air  is 
supplied,  the  odors  created  therein  do  not  pass 
into  the  rest  of  the  building  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  air  from  the  rest  of  the  building  con- 
stantly passes  inward  to  replace  that  withdrawn 
from  the  room  by  the  vent  flue.  This,  id  prac- 
tice, has  been  found  to  give  the  best  results  of 
any  known  method  of  treatment  of  toilet  rooms. 
Unless,  however,  a  fan  is  connected  to  the  toilet 
room  exhaust  its  action  is  not  likely  to  be 
positive. 

It  is  true  a  great  many  schools  install  heaters 
in  these  "aspirating"  flues  consisting  of  steam 


pipes  or  radiators  which  heat  the  air  after  it 
leaves  the  room  and  create  a  suction  somewhat 
like  a  chimney.  This,  however,  is  not  as  posi- 
tive as  the  fan  and  the  highest  class  of  school 
work  invariably  employs  separate  toilet  exhaust 
fans.  Care  is  also  taken  that  the  toilet  exhaust 
flues,  while  they  may  be  connected  with  each 
other,  are  never  in  any  way  connected  to  the 
flues  from  other  rooms  in  the  building.  It 
has  happened  more  than  once  (when  such  an 
experiment  has  been  made)  that  the  exhaust  air 
from  the  toilet  room,  at  periods  when  the  fan 
was  out  of  commission,  passed  up  its  own  flue 
to  the  flue  from  another  room  and  then  dropped 
back  down  the  second  flue  into  the  building 
again.  Therefore,  the  toilet  exhaust  system 
should  be  kept  absolutely  separate  and  distinct, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  maximum  beneficial 
effects  should  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  ex- 
haust fan  to  secure  positive  movement  of  the 
air. 

The  only  subject  remaining  for  discussion  on 
the  toilet  room  exhaust  system  is  the  location 
of  the  exhaust  outlet.  On  this  point  there  is 
great  difference  of  opinion,  many  preferring  the 
exhaust  outlet  at  the  ceiling,  near  the  door, 
while  others,  equally  positive,  advocate  the  loca- 
tion of  the  outlet  near  the  door  but  at  the  floor 
instead  of  at  the  ceiling.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
writer  this  disputed  point  is  quite  immaterial 
as  the  ideal  point  to  catch  an  odor  is  at  the 
place  of  generation  and  not  after  it  has  floated 
perhaps  across  the  entire  length  of  the  room 
before  passing  into  a  register. 

One  good  method  of  installing  toilet  outlets 
consists  of  concealing  the  flush  tanks  over  the 
water  closets  with  a  boxing  made  of  the  same 
material  as  the  closet  partitions,  this  boxing 
having  an  opening  over  each  closet  as  shown  in 
elevation  Fig.  38. 

A  cross  section  of  this  box,  which  will  make  the 
construction  much  .clearer,  is  given  in  Fig.  39. 
There  are,  however,  objections  to  this  casing 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  that  it  usually 
makes  the  tanks  inaccessible,  it  is  rather  un- 
sightly and,  besides  this,  it  is  not  so  efficient  as 
a   register  placed   directly   back   of   the   water 


25 


26 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


I         I 

I     i 


n 


•1 — ri —  I 


Q 


I 


Oper./nq 


kEZ^ 


<Q 


J 


m^ 


Fig.  38. 


^ 


I 


i 


—  Vent  3poce 


L. 


Vent 
Open  I  no 


zJVx 


i: 


.V 


Fig.  39. 


i 


^/7/  Space 


-Vent 
Opening 


<:^fc!V-f 


Fig.  41. 


VENTILATING  TOILETS  AND  LABORATORIES 


27 


^\ 


l:^ 


r^ 


L^ 


r^ 


L^ 


Fig.  42. 

closet  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  40.  This 
register  opens  into  a  vent  space  which  is  formed 
by  setting  the  alberene,  marble  or  slate  lining 
(which  forms  the  rear  of  the  stall)  out  a  dis- 
tance of  six  or  eight  inches  so  as  to  form  a  vent 
space,  this  being  clearly  indicated  in  the  cross 
section,  Fig.  41. 

Still  another  method  of  ventilation  for  water 
closets  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  local  vent, 
which  will  be  taken  up  later  under  the  discus- 


V-Venf 
Opening 


Fig.  43. 

sion  of  plumbing  fixtures.  This  local  vent  con- 
nection extends  from  the  back  of  the  closet  into 
the  partition  which  is  located  some  distance  out 
from  the  wall  the  same  as  indicated  in  Fig.  41, 
the  local  vent  connection  serving  identically  the 


inn 


rlnsfrucfor's  Tab/e 


_J" 


I 


^y=. 


e5 


j-"l'_''^Vi..jjL  ;_i-_:'i  il'4::_j 'i_.i^  l—  —  - 


^JI 


Fig.  44. 


28 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


same  purpose  as  the  registers  in  Fig.  40.  There 
are  also  certain  sanitary  objections  to  the  use 
of  the  local  vent.     These  will  be  treated  later. 

In  the  boys'  toilet  rooms  will  occur  a  type  of 
fixture  which  is  even  more  exacting  in  its  ven- 
tilation requirements  than  the  water  closet; 
this  is  the  urinal  which  is  built  in  several  forms. 
Fig.  42  shows  an  elevajtion  of  three  "stall" 
urinals  in  which  a  vent  opening  is  provided 
near  the  bottom  of  the  fixture  and  a  vent  space 
is  located  behind  (cross  section,  Fig.  43).  These 
vent  spaces  must  in  every  case  be  connected 
with  the  vent  flue,  and  the  sum  of  all  the  vents 
niust  equal  a  total  area  sufficient  to  pass  out 
the  required  amount  of  air  to  secure  satisfactory 
ventilation  in  the  room. 

Where  "trough"  urinals  are  used  the  construc- 
tion is  largely  similar  to  Fig.  43  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  back  slab  of  the  urinal  is 
stopped  off  a  few  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the 
trough,  allowing  the  air  to  pass  under  this 
slab  and  into  the  vent  space  behind.  With  the 
use  of  the  "lip"  urinal  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained with  registers  placed  immediately  above 
the  fixtures  similar  to  the  arrangement  shown 
for  water  closets  in  Fig.  40  with  the  exception 
that  the  registers,  of  course,  come  much  higher 
above  the  fixture. 

Another  part  of  the  school  which  requires 
careful  treatment  for  ventilation  is  the  chemis- 
try laboratory  where  poisonous  acid  fumes  are 
developed.     In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the 


(Wj'reMesh     ^P/oof 


chemistry  laboratory  may  be  arranged  in  one 
of  two  ways.  First,  the  mixing  and  handling 
of  chemicals  may  be  done  by  the  pupils  at  the 
tables.  In  this  case  each  pupil  should  be  pro- 
vided with  an  individual  exhaust  hood  which 
has  a  gooseneck  connection  to  a  pipe  running 
underneath  the  table.  Second,  the  experiment- 
ing may  be  done  in  a  group  of  glass  covered 
cases  having  sliding  glass  sash,  the  tops  of 
these  cases  being  connected  into  an  exhaust  sys- 
tem which  discharges  to  the  outer  air.    ' 

Where  the  mixing  is  done  at  the  tables  it  is 
growing  to  be  the  custom  to  omit  the  hoods  and 
use  a  grating  in  the  table  into  which  many  of 
the  fumes  fall  naturally  owing  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  heavier  than  air.  When  such  an  ar- 
rangement is  used  the  greatest  difficulty  comes 
in  getting  the  exhaust  pipes  from  the  tables 
over  to  some  common  point  where  an  exhaust 
fan  can  be  located  to  discharge  these  fumes  to 
the  outer  air. 

It  is  never  desirable  to  run  this  piping  on  the 
ceiling  of  the  room  below,  altho  this  is  the 
ideal  location  from  a  purely  engineering  stand- 
point. When  the  pipes  are  so  run,  they  are  acces- 
sible, can  be  easily  inspected  and  require  no 
tearing  apart  of  the  structure  for  renewal. 
These  pipes,  however,  must  in  all  cases  be  con- 
structed   of    acid    proof    material    or    at    least 


Copp  erP/pe  thro  Koof. 
C/oss  Room 

Duct  undef  Step 


L--^---^T^ 


Fig.  46. 


Fig.  47. 


VENTILATING  TOILETS  AND  LABORATORIES 
I  I 


Chem/sffy  Lectofe 


-»   I 1  ^ 


.    1f 


Room  JH 


i  \      \^       r  t 


Prep 


Em. 


^ 


HI 


,' 


■T     T^^ 


m 


HI 


Che/rr/stry 


.    O  T 


zr 


29 


J^oom 


Co/'/^/c/cr' 


1  J A  l: 

|//|//|//|//|[1]|>V|/V|>V|//| 

E/ementofy 

CL       XI,        XI 


S 


tr        XT        HIT 
Che.mJst/'y 


I- 1 


^ 


Fig.  48. 


□ 


r^r/ue 


FonondNbhA  U 


Q. 


fe/^pA  I I 


fl 

^Konge  ^Jfood    Oyen 


Toh/e 


I      1^.^/ocy^ 


Tcfb/e 


Tod/G 


u 


^    F^    P    ^" 


Fig.  50. 


30 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  49. 

material  which  is  nearly  acid  proof.  The  ideal 
fume  exhaust  is  made  either  of  tile  pipe  or  con- 
crete. Where  it  is  impractical  to  use  either  of 
these  two,  copper  pipe  is  substituted.  The  fan 
is  usually  made  of  oast  iron  coated  with  acid 
proof  paint  and  has  a  wheel  made  of  "monel 
metal,"  which  is  a  practically  acid-proof  metal- 
lie  composition. 

A  laboratory  using  the  individual  method  is 
given  in  Fig.  44,  the  fumes  in  this  case  being 
carried  under  a  concrete  step  which  is  made  7^ 
inches  high  all  along  one  side  of  the  room  and 
extending  over  to  the  fan. 

A  cross-section  of  this  step  on  line  "A-A"  is 
shown  in  Fig.  45,  in  which  S  is  the  top  of  the 
concrete  step,  F  the  finished  floor,  D  the  duct 
under  the  step  and  P  a  piece  of  tile  pipe  into 
which  the  flue  running  under  the  table  is  con- 
nected. A  small  flue  is  also  extended  over  the 
instructor's  talble,  a  cross  section  of  this  on 
line  "B-B"  being  shown  in  Fig.  46.  The  duct 
under  the  step  connects  into  a  copper  box  open- 
ing into  the  suction  side  of  the  fan  which  is 
located  in  an  adjoining  room.  The  fan  dis- 
charges thru  a  copper  pipe  out  of  a  copper  ven- 
tilator set  well  above  the  roof.  An  elevation  of 
this  apparatus  on  line  "C-C"  and  the  connec- 
tion between  the  duct  and  the  fan  is  given  in 
Fig.  47. 

Fig.  48  is  a  typical  layout  taken  from  a  new 
high  school  in  which  the  glass  case  arrangement 
is  utilized.  In  this  plan  the  tables  are  indi- 
cated by  T,  the  sinks  by  S  and  the  glass  cases 
with  hoods  by  H.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  this 
chemistry  laboratory  is  on  the  top  floor  (a  com- 
mon location  in  modern  schools)  it  was  possible 
to  connect  these  hoods  with  three  inch  copper 
pipes  run  straight  thru  the  ceiling  to  a  main 
copper  duct  located  in  the  attic  space  above,  a 


l)]an  of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  49.  All  the  main 
ducts  in  this  space  are  connected  into  a  suction 
box  from  which  the  fan  draws  the  fumes  and  dis- 
charges them  thru  a  roof  ventilator.  In  an  in- 
stallation of  this  kind  it  would  have  been  pos- 
sible to  use  tile  pipe  had  it  not  been  for  the 
fact  that  the  ceilings  over  the  classrooms  are 
only  "hung"  ceilings  and  were  not  regarded  as 
substantial  enough  to  support  a  tile  duct  with 
its  accompanying  concrete  slab.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  special  chemical  fume  exhausts, 
all  chemical  laboratories  should  be  ventilated 
with  supply  and  exhaust  ducts  the  same  as  other 
classrooms. 

Kitchen  ventilation  follows  out  the  general 
rule,  previously  laid  down,  of  exhausting  the  air 
and  not  supplying  fresh  air  to  the  room.  This 
may  be  done  by  an  exhaust  flue  with  a  register 
located  at  any  convenient  point.  Much  better 
satisfaction  is  given  when  the  odors  are  caught 
"at  the  point  of  origin"  which  is  generally  over 
the  stove,  soup  kettles,  vegetable  boilers  and 
similar  odor  producing  kitchen  equipment.  Ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  odors  are  given 
off  in  a  heated  condition  so  that  their  tempera- 
ture is  higher  than  that  in  the  room  they  tend 
to  rise  and  seek  the  ceiling,  where  after  a  time, 
they  become  cooled  and  drop  back  to  the  floor 
again,  reaching  all  parts  of  the  room  by  this 
method  of  circulation. 


'a 


(puctftomFonfo  C/?//r?r?ey 


Fig.  51.     Cross  Section  X-X  of  Fig.  50. 


VENTILATING  TOILETS  AND  LABORATORIES 


31 


To  arrest  these  odors  as  soon  as  possible  a 
hood  is  generally  extended  over  all  the  trouble- 
some equipment.  A  graphic  example  on  a  small 
scale  is  shown  in  the  little  kitchen  plan  given  in 
Fig.  50,  where  a  hood  is  placed  over  the  range 
and  has  an  exhaust  duct  (connected  to  a  fan) 
placed  between  the  hood  and  the  ceiling.  This 
is  shown  more  clearly  on  the  cross  section  along 
the  line  X-X  given  in  Fig.  51.  Numerous  out- 
lets connect  the  hood  into  the  exhaust  duct  to 
the  end  of  which  is  connected  a  small  exhaust 
fan.  This  fan  discharges  into  a  small  duot  car- 
ried along  the  inside  of  the  hood,  as  shown.  It 
opens  into  the  chimney  flue.  By  using  indi- 
vidual hoods  and  exhaust  equipment  of  this  sort 
the  odor  from  a  soup  kettle  can  be  killed  with- 
out making  it  necessary  to  run  the  entire  ex- 
haust system  for  the  whole  kitchen  until  later. 


In  the  lunch  room,  owing  to  the  large  number 
of  pupils  present  at  times,  it  often  proves  im- 
practical to  follow  out  the  scheme  of  exhaust 
only,  inasmuch  as  the  quantity  of  air  will  be 
excessive  on  the  "30  cu.  ft.  per  minute  per 
pupil"  basis.  Therefore,  in  lunoh  rooms  a  com- 
promise is  often  made  by  exhausting  the  full 
30  cu.  ft.  and  supplying  say  15  or  20  cu.  ft. 
This  will  still  cause  an  inward  leakage  at  all 
points  and  yet  does  not  absolutely  rob  the  pupil 
of  fresh  air.  These  exhaust  registers  are  pre- 
ferredly  located  near  the  doors,  the  idea  being 
to  catch  any  air  of  the  room  which  might  be 
moved  toward  the  openings  leading  to  other 
portions  of  the  building  by  the  swinging  of  the 
doors  or  by  other  causes. 


A  HIGH  SCHOOL  LUNCH  ROOM. 
(Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.) 


CHAPTER  V 

Toilet  Fixtures 


The  subject  of  plumbing  is  one  in  which  every 
school  board  is  vitally  interested.  While  the 
heating  and  ventilation  of  a.  building  contribute 
largely  to  the  comfort  of  the  occupants,  the 
plumbing  acts  directly,  and  almost  immediately, 
upon  their  health.  Altho  it  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  the  lack  of  ventilation  may  in  time  have  a 
bad  effect  on  the  physical  welfare,  epidemics  and 
serious  diseases  are  not  likely  to  be  created; 
with  faulty  plumbing  epidemics  and  diseases  are 
bound  to  occur  and  few  parents,  indeed,  when 
such  an  event  stirs  them  deeply,  are  inclined  to 
be  lenient  in  their  judgment  of  the  authorities 
at  fault. 

Strange  to  say,  the  average  architect  has  but 
a  very  hazy  idea  of  the  mysteries  of  plumbing, 
while  iJersons  not  directly  interested  in  con- 
struction work  are  completely  beyond  their 
depth.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  in 
connection  with  modern  sanitation,  (and  un- 
doubtedly the  cause  of  much  of  the  general  ig- 
norance on  the  subject)  is  the  recent  date  of  the 
development  of  sanitary  science.  It  has  in  fact, 
progressed  to  its  present  state,  almost  from  its 
infancy,  within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  the 
modern  syphon-jet  water  closet  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  been  in  common  use  previous  to 
1900.  Today,  even  among  sanitary  engineers 
of  acknowledged  standing,  there  are  radical  dif- 
ferences on  what  shall  constitute  correct  and  in- 
correct plumbing  work. 

To  a  great  extent,  especially  in  cities  of  mod- 
erate size,  the  piping  of  plumbing  fixtures  is 
regulated  and  controlled  entirely  by  local  ordi- 
nances. The  requirements  of  these  local  enact- 
ments vary  widely,  sometimes  even  conflicting 
in  important  details. 

Such  being  the  case,  the  writer  is  unwilling 
to  make  hard  and  fast  statements  regarding 
many  sanitary  details,  but  will  rather  present 
accepted  generalities  and  some  warnings  against 
positive  dangers  upon  which  no  question  can  be 
logically  raised. 

The  primary  purpose  of  the  modern  plumbing 
system  is  to  supply  water  in  the  proper  condi- 
tion and  at  the  proper  temperature  to  the  var- 
ious points  in  the  building  where  required,  and 


to  remove  such  water,  together  with  other  waste 
m.atter,  in  an  inoffensive  and  sanitary  manner. 
A  proper  system  includes  all  fixtures,  piping 
and  other  equipment  necessary  to  accomplish 
this  in  the  most  satisfactory  way. 

Modern  plumbing  is  based  on  the  theory  that 
drainage  pipes  and  sewers  become  foul  and  gen- 
erate a  gas  (commonly  termed  "sewer  gas") 
which  is  most  dangerous  to  health.  Upon  this 
accepted  fact  the  waste  pipe  from  every  fixture 
is  trapped  at  the  closest  possible  point  to  the  fix- 
ture. A  trap  is  usually  a  bend  in  the  waste 
pipe  (Figure  52)  somewhat  like  an  inverted 
syphon  with  waste  water  standing  in  the  bottom 
and  thus  "water-sealing"  the  pipe  so  that  no 
air  can  pass  from  the  room  into  the  sewer — and 
(what  is  more  important)  so  that  no  air  or  sewer 
gas  can  pass  from  the  sewer  into  the  room. 
Figure  53  also  shows  a  common  type  of  trap 
known  as  a  "pot"  trap  often  used  for  bath  tubs, 
shower  baths,  etc.,  its  purpose  and  action  being 
similar  to  the  first  type  described. 

To  prevent  a  "slug"  or  rush  of  waste  water 
from  drawing  out,  by  syphonage  or  suction,  the 
water  which  should  remain  in  the  trap,  prac- 
tically every  trap  is  "relieved"  or  "back  vented." 
This  relief  is  afforded  by  a  vent  connected  to  a 
pipe  opening  into  the  outer  air  and  serves  to 
break  the  syphonic  afction  so  that  the  contents 
of  the  trap  are  always  intact. 

Some  traps,  such  as  floor  drains,  leader  traps, 
etc.,  it  is  not  desirable  to  vent,  since  a  vent  line 
causes  a  current  of  air  and  makes  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  water  in  the  trap  much  more  rapid. 
On  fixtures  in  common  use  this  evaporation  is 
negligible  as  the  water  in  the  trap  is  renewed 
with  every  discharge  of  the  fixture.  Where  traps 
are  liable  to  remain  for  considerable  periods 
without  use,  and  therefore  without  renewal,  it 
is  customary  to  omit  the  vent. 

The  division  of  plumbing  work  with  which  the 
school  board  members  are  most  intimately  con- 
cerned is  the  selection  of  the  type  of,  and  mater- 
ial for,  the  plumbing  fixtures.  For  instance, 
water  closets  may  be  of  the  local  vent  type;  they 
may  be  of  the  range  type,  syphon  jet,  or  wash 
down ;  they  may  be  vitreous,  porcelain,  or  enam- 


32 


TOILET  FIXTURES 


33 


ToF/xTure. 


Sewer*  (jo  s 


Fig.  53. 


eled  iron.  Urinals  may  be  of  the  stall,  lip,  or 
trough  type,  either  locally  vented  or  not;  they 
may  be  made  of  vitreous  ware,  porcelain  ware, 
slate,  glass,  alberene  stone,  etc.,  etc. 

To  begin  with,  what  is  the  distinction  between 
vitreous  ware,  porcelain  ware,  and  enameled 
iron?  All  are  white,  all  are  used  for  various 
fixtures  and,  to  the  casual  observer,  might  easily 
be  mistaken  for  ©a ah  other. 

Vitreous  ware  is  plain,  glazed  china,  similar 
in  makeup  to  the  well-known  china  tableware. 
It  is  produced  by  firing  a  clay  core  in  a  kiln 
until  it  vitrifies,  and  then  glazing  it  by  dipping 
in  a  glazing  solution  which  is  fused  to  the  clay 
body  by  another  firing.  The  chief  advantage  of 
this  ware  is  its  impervious  and  non-absorbent 
body  which  is  thoroly  vitrified.  It  may  be  dis- 
tinguished most  positively  from  porcelain  ware 
by  what  is  known  as  the  "aniline  ink  test"  in 
which  a  chip  is  immersed  in  aniline  dye  for  a 
period  of  several  hours.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
the  piece  is  broken  thru  the  fractured  side  and 
the  distance  that  the  ink  has  penetrated  the 
fractured  surface  is  measured.  Good  ware  will 
not  show  a  pink  discoloration  over  1-32  inch 
deep. 


Of  course,  for  plumbing  fixtures  this  mater- 
ial is  almost  ideal,  altho  the  fixture  design  is 
limited  by  the  potter's  skill  to  form  the  clay,  and 
the  ability  of  the  kiln  to  fire  such  forms  with- 
out distortion.  This  ware  is  the  most  expensive 
of  any  used  for  fixtures,  but  should  be  required 
wherever  the  financial  considerations  permit, 
and  where  the  fixture  designs  can  be  produced  in 
vitreous  form. 

As  an  example,  water  closets  are  almost  uni- 
versally vitreous  ware — and  should  he — other 
materials  for  water  closets  being  prohibited  by 
many  of  the  first-class  plumbing  codes.  No 
school  board  should  allow  other  than  vitreous 
closets  in  any  school  under  its  control. 

Porcelain  ware,  solid  porcelain — or  "porcelain 
china"  as  some  manufacturers  delight  to  char- 
acterize an  inferior  ware — is  produced  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  vitreous  ware,  except  that 
the  body  is  composed  of  a  clay  mixture  which  is 
fired  at  much  lower  temperature  than  the  vitre- 
ous ware,  and  which  does  not  vitrify.  There- 
fore, while  porcelain  looks  and  feels  like  vitre- 
ous ware,  the  slightest  chip  of  the  glazed  sur- 
face exposes  the  porous  base.  This  base  quickly 
takes  up  water  and  impurities  and  soon  becomes 
foul.  It  will  not  stand  the  aniline  ink  test  with- 
out the  ink  penetrating  a  much  greater  depth 
than  1-32  inch. 

Porcelain  ware  is  largely  used  for  lavatories, 
washtubs,  and  other  fixtures  where  the  sanitary 
requirements  are  not  as  exacting  as  in  water 
closets. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  stall  urinal  has  not 
been  commercially  produced  in  vitreous  ware, 
owing  to  the  large  size  of  this  fixture  and  its 
failure  to  stand  the  excessive  kiln  temperature 
without  serious  warping.  Some  manufacturers 
have  sxTOceeded  in  producing  a  stall  urinal  eigh- 


Fig.  54. 


Fig.  55. 


34 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


teen  inches  wide  of  vitreous  ware,  bmt  the  reg- 
ular 24  inch  width  has  so  far  defied  their  art. 

Enameled  iron  ware  is  produced  by  making  a 
fixture  out  of  cast  iron,  and  then  coating  it  with 
a  white  enamel  glaze,  which  is  fused  in  a  fur- 
nace. This  results  in  the  uniting  of  two  dis- 
similar substances  with  different  co-efiicients  of 
expansion.  These  fixtures  are  exceedingly  liable 
to  have  the  coating  crack  when  very  hot  or  cold 


Slate  is  much  used  in  schools  for  the  con- 
struction of  trough  urinals  and  so-called  "slab 
work"  which  includes  toiletroom  wainscots, 
water-closet  partition,  shower-bath  stalls,  etc. 

Marble  is  used  for  slab  work  of  particularly 
fine  character,  but  is  usually  too  expensive  for 
school  purposes. 

Alberene  stone  is  a  natural,  dark-gray,  mot- 
tled   stone,    streaked   with   dark   veins,   and   is 


Fig.  56. 

water  strikes  them.  Also,  the  coating  is  very 
brittle,  a  slight  blow  chipping  it  off  and  expos- 
ing the  iron  below.  This,  while  not  absorbent, 
is  highly  corrosive.  It  soon  rusts,  and  produces 
an  offensive  looking  and  unsanitary  fixture.  The 
use  of  enameled  iron  today  is  gradually  being 
confined  to  sinks  and  slop  sinks,  cheap  bath  tubs 
and  lavatories. 

Galvanized  iron  ware  is  little  used  except  for 
sinks  and  slop  sinks.  It  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended for  schools. 


Fig.  57 

much  used  in  schools  for  trough  urinals,  slab 
work,  table  tops,  chemical  sinks.  It  is  partic- 
ularly well  adapted  for  acid  demonstration 
tables,  being  practically  acid  proof.  The  joints 
are  made  by  grooving  and  inserting  a  contin- 
uous metal  clamp  which  is  buried  in  the  joint 
and  made  water  proof  by  the  use  of  litharge. 

From  this  varied  assortment  the  school  plumb- 
ing fixtures  must  be  selected  and  their  surround- 
ings must  be  decided  upon. 

So  far   as   the  water   closets   are  concerned. 


TOILET  FIXTURES 


35 


there  is  only  one  kind  which  is  generally  ap- 
proved for  school  use,  this  being  the  "syphon 
jet"  type  of  vitreous  ware.  In  this  type  the 
syphoning  out  of  the  contents  of  the  bowl  is 
assisted  by  a  jet  which  helps  to  raise  the  water 
in  the  closet  over  the  high  point  of  the  syphon 
ac  the  time  of  discharge.  This  action  is  illus- 
trated in  cross  section  by  Figure  54. 


the  use  of  the  "range"  water  closets  which  are 
now  obsolete,  having  been  recognized  as  radi- 
cally bad  from  the  sanitary  standpoint.  A  safe 
rule  to  use  in  selecting  superior  types  of  plumb- 
ing fixtures  is  the  one  which  says:  "Each  and 
every  square  inch  of  surface  on  a  fixture  not 
cleaned  and  scoured  off  at  each  flush  is  a  dis- 
ccunt to  its  sanitary  properties."    Just  see  where 


Fig.  58. 

The  wash-down  closet  is  quite  similar  to  the 
syphon  jet  except  that  the  jet  and  its  action 
are  lacking,  and  this  closet,  therefore,  fails  to 
have  the  immediate  and  superior  action  of  the 
sypbon-jet  type.  It  is  a  cheaper  and  less  satis- 
factory substitute  for  the  jet  closet,  altho  its 
use  is  not  by  any  means  a  serious  transgression 
of  the  modern  sanitary  requirements. 

Let  me  warn  school  boards,  however,  against 


Fig.  59. 

the  range  water  closet  stands  with  its  large  ex- 
posed and  unflushed  surface.  It  cannot  even 
be  made  from  vitreous  ware,  owing  to  its  enor- 
mous size. 

Having  decided  on  a  vitreous  syphon-jet  closet 
the  next  matter  for  consideration  is  whether  it 
shall  be  locally  vented  or  not.  At  the  time  the 
matter  of  ventilation  of  toilet  rooms  was  being 
touched  upon  the  application  of  local  ventila- 


36 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


tion  was  mentioned,  and  it  was  noted  that  this 
subject  would  be  discussed  more  fully  under  the 
fixture  itself. 

In  Figure  55  is  shown  what  is  known  as  the 
local-vent  water  closet,  or  closet  with  "raised 
rear  vent,"  sometimes  also  caP-ed  a  "Boston" 
vent.  This  vent  is  formed  directly  as  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  fixture  and  is  usually  con- 
nected thru  the  wall  into  a  "utility  corridor." 
This  "corridor"  is  the  space  for  pipes  back  of 
the  plumbing  fixtures  and  is  vented  directly 
into  a  duot  carried  to  the  outer  air. 

From  a  ventilation  standpoint  it  is  extremely 
desirable  to  catch  all  odors  at  their  point  of 
origin  rather  than  to  draw  them  across  a  large 
portion  of  the  room  before  they  find  egress  thru 
the  vent  register.  From  a  sanitary  standpoint 
the  use  of  the  local  vent  is  debatable. 

Many  maintain  that  the  vent  and  flues  con- 
nected to  it  soon  become  so  foul  as  to  constitute 
a  detriment  rather  than  an  advantage.  On  the 
other  hand  its  use  seems  to  be  on  the  increase  in 
schools  where  the  most  up-to-date  equipment 
is  provided.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
Schenley  High  School  in  Pittsburgh  (under  con- 
struction in  1915-1916  and  which  cost  nearly 
a  million  dal.iars)  has  employed  locally  vented 
water  closets  almost  exclusively.  In  fact  the 
Iceal  vent  closet  has  been  officially  adopted  by 
the  Pittsburgh  School  Board  as  the  standard 
type  of  closet  for  all  their  school  buildings. 

The  Montclair  (New  Jersey)  High  School 
costing  about  $700,000  and  completed  in  1915, 
uses  locally  vented  water  closets  for  all  pupils' 
toilets. 

The  Elizabeth  (New  Jersey)  High  School 
costing  about  $500,000  and  completed  in  1914, 
d'd  not  employ  local  vents,  but  the  remodeling 
and  enlargement  of  the  New  Lebanon  School  at 
Greenwich,  Conn.,  (completed  in  1915)  does. 

In  none  of  these  cases,  either  with  or  with- 
out the  vent,  has  the  mortality  or  health  rate 
been  seriously  affected,  so  we  may  rest  assured 
that  the  opponents  of  the  local  vent  are  exagger- 
ating to  a  certain  extent,  at  least. 


Selecting  the  type  of  water  closet  also  in- 
cludes the  means  of  flushing.  Today  there  are 
three  standard  means  for  flushing  closets — the 
gravity  tank,  the  pneumatic  compression  tank, 
and  the  flush-valve. 

The  gravity  tank  may  be  a  high  tank  located 
near  the  ceiling  or  a  low  tank  set  just  above 
the  fixture.  Each  of  these  tanks  fills  with  water 
from  a  small  pipe  which  is  closed  off  at  the 
proper  time  by  a  valve,  in  the  tank,  operated  by 
a  copper  float. 

To  flush  the  closet  a  chain  pull  or  small  lever 
handle  is  used  which  allows  the  water  to  flow 
out  of  the  tank  thru  a  good  sized  connection  into 
the  closet,  giving  the  required  amount  of  water 
within  the  needed  time.  Gravity  tanks  are 
cheap  but  are  not  recommended  for  school  work 
owing  to  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  tam- 
pered with  and  put  out  of  order.  They  may  be 
installed,  when  protected  from  mischievousness, 
as  they  are  in  the  Elizabeth  (New  Jersey)  High 
School.  A  protected  tank  is  shown  in  Figures 
50  and  57,  P  indicates  the  partition,  FT  the 
flush  tank,  VR  a  vent  register,  VS  a  vent  space, 
H  an  alberene  side  and  T  a  removable  top. 

Far  better  for  school  work  is  the  pneumatic 
compression  tank  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig- 
ures 58  and  59.  This  tank  is  normally  full  of 
air  and  the  closet  seat  is  raised  in  the  front 
about  IJ  inches  by  a  spring.  When  the  fixture 
is  used  the  depressing  of  the  seat  to  its  proper 
level  opens  the  valve  on  the  supply  pipe  so  that 
water  rushes  up  and  partially  fills  the  tank,  com- 
pressing the  air  above  it.  When  the  seat  is 
released  the  supply-pipe  valve  is  closed  and  the 
flush  connection  into  the  closet  is  opened.  The 
water  in  the  tank,  driven  both  by  gravity  and 
the  compressed  air  above  it,  is  forced  down  the 
supply  pipe  and  performs  the  flushing  operation. 

Since  it  is  nearly  an  impossibility  to  use  this 
closet  without  its  flushing  automatically,  it  is 
particularly  desirable  where  very  young  chil- 
dren are  present  or  a  foreign  population  is  to  be 
served.  The  tank  will  not  operate  satisfactorily 
on  less  than  twenty  pounds  per  square  inch 
water  pressure  sat  the  closet. 


CHAPTER  VI 


Plumbing  Fixtures 


The  third  type  of  water  closet  flushing 
device  consists  of  a  flush  valve  so  designed  as 
to  permit  almost  the  free  and  instant  opening 
of  the  water  pipe  into  the  closet  and  then  grad- 
ually shutting  off  the  flow.  While  the  shut-off 
is  automatic,  the  operation  of  the  valve  must  be 
I>roduced  by  manipulating  a  push  button  or 
lever  handle.  These  flush  valves  are  used  al- 
most exclusively  in  larger  buildings  of  public 
character  and  are  being  received  with  more  and 
more  favor  in  schools,  altho  they  are  more  ex- 
pensive than  a  compression  oir  gravity  tank. 
A  favorite  method  of  installation,  where  utility 
corridors  are  used,  is  to  place  the  valve  in  the 
corridor  and  to  operate  it  by  a  push  button  ex- 
tended thru  the  corridor  wall  (Fig.  60).  This 
arrangement  has  two  advantages;  the  valve  is 
secure  from  meddling,  and  repairs  can  be  made 
by  the  janitor  without  entering  the  toilet  room. 
This,  of  course,  is  specially  desirable  in  girls' 
toilet  rooms. 

Flush  valves  can  be  obtained  which  operate 
on  as  low  as  six  pounds  of  wiater  pressure,  altho 
not  less  than  ten  pounds  is  recommended  by  the 
writer  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  trouble.  Small 
piping  will  not  do  for  the  valves;  the  common 
size  of  the  flush  valve  pipe  branch  must  be  IV2 
in.,  or  at  least  iVi  in.  Each  valve  should  have 
a  separate  shutoff  or  stop  valve,  either  entirely 
separate  or  incorporated  in  the  flush  valve,  so 


(Jti/fry 


as  to  permit  repairs  to  one  fixture  without  put- 
ting the  whole  battery  out  of  commission.  This 
feature  is  desirable  on  all  fixtures  altho  the  first 
cost  of  such  a  large  number  of  extra  valves 
seems  excessive. 

Flush  valves  require  a  steady,  even  pressure 
to  give  the  best  results.  For  this  reason  they 
are  usually  installed  in  combination  with  a 
house  tank — a  subject  which  will  be  taken  up 
later  under  the  discussion  of  the  water  supply 
for  the  school  building. 

One  other  type  of  water  closet,  which  deserves 
mention  before  leaving  this  subject,  is  the  "wall 
hung"  closet  shown  in  Figure  61.  This  closet 
has  been  installed  in  several  buildings,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Reading  Terminal 
in  Philadelphia  and  the  City  and  County  Build- 
ing at  Wihnington,  Del.  So  far,  its  use  in 
school  work  has  been  exceedingly  rare.  Yet 
there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  prove  just 
as  satisfactory  in  educational  buildings  as  else- 
where. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  fixture  are: 
ease  of  cleaning  floors  beneath,  absence  of  dirt- 
accumulating  joints  at  the  floor,  better  circula- 
tion of  air  and  the  possibility  of  carrying  the 
soil  pipes  at  the  back  entirely  above  the  floor 
in  the  utility  corridor,  instead  of  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  room  below  as  is  customary  with  the 
common  closet. 

The  next  fixture   in  sanitary  importance  is 


Fig.  60. 


38 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


"^F/ush  P/pe 


JSlob 


f  3  ton  e  Tj^o  u^h 
\    w/f/j  cf/'(7//7  of  e/?d 


Fig.  62. 


'Flush  ripe. 
Vent  Space 


Fig.  63. 


.y-LV 


Fig.  64. 


^-V^--iy^- 


^q  \Lv-^^ 


a 


a^ 


cs_ 


4. 


:^a.  r^^TT    kM.     .1     i  I.     .1     ^i\.c^F 


Fig.  65  B. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


39 


the  urinal  which  has  shown  anarked  develop- 
ment in  late  years.  The  old,  standard  trough 
type  (usually  made  of  slate,  glass,  or  alberene 
stone)  is  shown  in  Figure  62.  In  this  type  the 
flush  pipe  at  the  top  is  perforated  and  keeps 
the  slab  and  trough  washed  off  by  a  constant, 
or  intermittent,  flow  of  cold  water.  This  type 
of  urinal  is  being  installed  in  many  schools, 
but  is  rapidly  losing  favor  because  of  its  rather 
repellent   appearance   and  excessive  water  con- 


A  step  in  advance  from  the  trough  urinal  is 
what  is  known  as  the  lip  urinal.  This  fixture  is 
illustrated  by  the  photograph.  Figure  64,  in 
which  it  is  shown  with  a  flush  valve  attached. 
The  lip  urinal  is  very  popular  in  older  public 
building  work  but  has  been  little  used  for 
schools.  Altho  cheai>er  than  the  stall  urinal, 
later  described,  it  requires  a  more  or  less  ex- 
pensive partition  and  backing  of  marble, 
alberene,  or  slate,  so  that  the  cost  over  all  is 


Fig.  (JG. 


sumption  when  constantly  flushed.  It  abso- 
lutely reqiiires,  by  its  construction,  either  a 
complete  flush  along  its  entire  length  or  no 
flush  at  all.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that,  with 
such  a  condition  existing,  economy  in  water 
consumption  is  impossible. 

Figure  63  shows  a  trough  urinal  of  the  above 
style  arranged  for  local  ventilation  and,  while 
this  eliminates  some  of  the  objectionable  odor 
otherwise  likely  to  arise  from  this  type  of  fix- 
ture, it  does  not  help  the  excessive  water  con- 
sumption. 


nearly  as  much  as  the  stall  type.  Moreover  the 
floor  under  such  fixtures  is  liable  to  be  in  an 
unsanitary  state,  requiring  practically  constant 
attention  to  keep  it  in  proper  condition. 

The  most  satisfactory  type  of  urinal  for 
school  use  is  undoubtedly  the  stall  fixture  shown 
in  Figures  65A  and  65B.  These  fixtures  are 
flushed — in  this  case — by  a  flush  tank  FT  thru 
the  flush  pipe  F;  they  waste  thru  individual 
traps  into  the  soil  pipe  SP,  the  traps  being 
vented  by  the  vents  V  into  the  vent  header  VH. 
As  shown  these  fixtures  are  local  vented  at  LV 


40 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  67. 

into  the  vent  space  VS,  altho  they  are  common- 
ly installed  without  this  arrangement. 

These  fixtures  are  generally  set  directly  on 
the  rough  concrete  E-C  after  which  the  finished 
floor  FF  is  carried  up  to  and  around  them.  It 
is  not  considered  desirable  to  set  the  tops  of 
these  fixtures  even  with  the  floor  owing  to  the 
liability  of  dirty  scrub  water,  sweepings,  and 
other  foreign  substances  to  find  their  way  into 
the  fixture.  These  urinals  can  be  flushed  with 
flush  valves,  and  when  so  installed  exhibit  much 
economy  in  water  consumption.  A  view  of  a 
typical  battery  installed  in  one  of  the  new 
modern  high  schools  is  shown  in  Figure  66. 

Another  method  of  local  venting  this  type  of 
fixture  consists  of  making  a  pipe  connection 
from  this  vent  chamber  down  to  the  waste  pipe 
immediately  under  the  fixture.  The  idea  is  that 
a  draft  will  be  created  not  only  at  the  bottom 
of  the  fixture  but  in  the  upper  part  of  the  waste 
pipe  as  well.  It  is  hard  to  definitely  say  that 
either  method  is  much  superior  to  the  other  as 
both  have  staunch  advocates,  and  the  writer  has 
never  been  able  to  note  any  marked  difference 
in  favor  of  either. 

Lavatories  in  school  buildings  should  be  made 
of  vitreous,  with  spring  or  push  button  faucets 
to  avoid  waste  of  water.  It  is  not  believed  that 
the  siocalled  "Fuller"  type  of  faucet  is  as  satis- 
factory for  school  use  as  a  good  compression 
faucet  built  along  modern  lines.  A  lavatory 
with  an  integral  back  and  a  supporting  leg  is 
recommended,  somewhat  of  the  type  shown  in 
Figure  66.  There  is  probably  less  chance,  how- 
ever, of  going  wrong  on  the  lavatory  selection 
than  any  other  fixture.  If  a  cheai>er  fixture 
than  the  one  shown  is  desired,  the  leg  may  be 
omitted  land  the  fixture  supported  from  the  wall 
by  a  cast  iron  wall  bracket  and  small  nickel 
plated  lugs. 


Still  further  reduction  can  be  made  in  cost 
by  substituting  a  porcelain  lavatory  or  an 
enameled  iron  one,  altho  neither  will  stand 
usage  so  well  as  vitreous  ware. 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  of  the  modem 
school  is  the  drinking  water.  How  to  present 
to  the  pupils  an  adequate  supply  of  cool  and 
palatable  water  in  a  manner  which  is  germ 
proof  is  a  question  of  no  small  importance.  In 
many  states  today,  and  in  a  much  larger  num- 
ber in  the  near  future,  the  common  drinking 
cup  is,  or  will  be,  illegal.  More  than  this,  there 
is  great  hygienic  necessity  in  this  prohibition 
so  that  it  is  a  matter  of  wisdom  that  new  school 
buildings  be  equipped  with  some  sort  of  drink- 
ing fountain  not  requiring  the  use  of  cups. 

Of  course  individual  paper  cups  can  be  used, 
but  there  are  numerous  objections  to  this  prac- 
tice. Free  cups  will  be  wasted  by  the  pupils 
and  used  for  every  conceivable  puipose  besides 
that  for  which  they  are  intended.  Cups  vended 
by  the  "penny-in-the-slot"  method  are  hardly 
practical  especially  in  schools  younger  ohildren 
attend.  The  supply  of  cups  is  constantly  be- 
coming exhausted  resulting  in  the  use  of  second 


Fig.  68. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


41 


handed  cups  (or  worse)  until  the  supply  is  re- 
plenished. 

The  only  practical  way  to  avoid  the  danger 
of  common  drinking  cups  and  the  nuisance  of 
individual  cups  is  to  install  bubbling  drinking 
fountains.  These  come  in  three  general  styles: 
the  pedestal  type,  the  wall  hung  type  and  the 
trough  type. 

Most  drinlving  fountains  of  the  trough  type 
are  improvisations  from  the  old  faucet-cup  sink 
arrangement  in  which  some  sort  of  bubbler  has 
been  attached  to  the  faucet.  There  are  types, 
however,  in  which  the  trough  or  sink  is  deliber- 
ately used  for  one  to  six  bubblers,  thus  making 
one  waste  connection  serve  all  the  fountains  in 
the  same  trough. 

The  wall  hung  fountain,  illustrated  in  Figure 
67,  is  a  cheap  and  satisfactory  form  of  individ- 
ual fountain.  It  is  sometimes  set  in  batteries  of 
three,  or  even  more. 

Pedestal  fountains  have  the  advantage  of 
being  set  out  on  a  floor  in  any  desired  position, 
without  regard  for  a  wall.  These  can  be  ob- 
tained in  many  forms  and  styles  from  the  ex- 
tremely rugged,  such  as  is  installed  in  the  East 
Orange  (N.  J.)  High  School  (Figure  68),  to 
the  most  advanced,  foot-control  vitreous  foun- 
tain such  as  is  installed  in  the  Elizabeth  (N.  J.) 
High  School  (Figure  69). 

The  type  of  bubblers  requiring  pressure  by 
the  hands  to  operate  are  not  likely  to  be  as  sani- 
tary as  the  bubblers  with  a  spring  faucet  or  foot 
control  and  should  not  be  used  when  avoidable. 


Fig.  69. 


Fig.  70. 

Sinks  are  a  comparatively  rare  fixture  in 
schools  excepting  those  of  more  advanced  chitr- 
acter.  They  may  be  divided  into  service  sinks 
and  sinks  for  teachers  and  pupils.  The  service 
sinks  comprise  slop  sinks,  kitchen  and  lunch- 
room and  boiler  room  sinks.  The  pupils'  sinks 
include  domestic  science  sinks,  chemistry  sinks, 
arts  and  science  sinks,  etc.,  the  teachers'  sinlvS 
are  limited  almost  entirely  to  demonstration 
table  sinks. 

In  general  enameled  iron  sinl^s  are  fairly 
satisfactory  for  service  use.  The  boiler  room 
sink  is  galvanized  iron  almost  without  excep- 
tion. Where  slop  sinks  are  installed  in  toilet 
rooms  adjacent  to  nice  plurmbing  fixtures  they 
are  generally  of  porcelain,  but  when  placed  in 
slop  sink  closets  accessible  to  the  janitor  only, 
galvanized  iron  is  often  substituted. 

Both  kitchen  sinks  and  slop  sinks  should  have 
backs — integral  preferred — ^and  valves  control- 


42 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


ling  the  supplies  so  as  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
the  water  and  to  allow  repair  of  the  faucets 
without  shutting  down  other  fixtures.  A  good 
installation  of  a  school  kitchen  sink  is  shown 
in  Figure  70.  Here  the  valves  are  set  in  the 
wall  with  the  bonnet  and  wheel  handle  exposed. 
Drain  boards  on  kitchen  sinks  are  coming 
into  much  wider  use  than  formerly.  The 
favorite  board  is  built  of  ash  as  this  does  not 


break  the  amount  of  dishes  which  a  board  of 
enameled  iron  will. 

Cooking  sinks  are  preferably  vitreous,  but 
porcelain  is  also  much  used.  Demonstration 
table  sinks  are  made  of  vitreous  ware,  porcelain, 
alberene,  etc.  These  usually  have  ground  tops 
and  are  set  under  openings  cut  in  the  tops  of 
the  table.  Alberene  is  often  used  where  acids 
are  to  be  handled. 


A  SCHOOL  LAUNDRY. 


CHAPTER  VII 


Number  and  Location  of  Fixtures 


After  the  school  hoard  has  reached  a  definite 
decision  upon  the  plumbing  fixtures  to  be  used, 
the  question  arises.  How  many,  and,  where? 

It  is  indeed  a  hard  problem  to  state,  with 
exactness,  the  number  of  fixtures  of  each  kind 
required  for  any  given  building.  This  is  due 
to  the  general  vagueness  regarding  the  maxi- 
mum seating  capacity,  largest  probable  number 
of  occupants,  etc.,  which  usually  exists  at  the 
time  the  building  is  designed. 

Of  course,  the  primary  motive  in  the  location 
of  plumbing  fixtures  in  any  building  is  to  place 
them  in  convenient  and  accessible  positions 
where,  at  the  same  time,  they  will  be  inconspic- 
uous. It  is,  however,  a  fact  to  be  regretted  that 
many  schools,  even  at  the  present  time,  are 
arranged  by  school  boards  to  have  their  main 
toilet  rooms  for  both  sexes  in  the  basement.  It 
must  be  granted  that  the  use  of  the  basement  in 
this  manner  secures  service  from  a  portion  of 
the  building  which  otherwise  is  likely  to  be 
used  for  storage  only,  and  also,  that  an  equal 
amount  of  space  is  obtained  on  the  upper  floors 
for  classrooms.  On  the  basis  of  economy  and 
seclusion,  the  main  basement  toilet  room  is 
desirable,  but  this  is  the  only  recommendation 
which  the  writer  has  ever  found  for  it.  The 
basement  toilet  is  neither  accessible  nor  con- 
venient; it  is  quite  likely  to  be  poorly  lighted, 
and,  owing  to  its  distance  from  occupied  rooms, 
its  ventilation  is  often  neglected. 

It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  the  better  new 
schools,  especially  high  schools,  are  being 
equipped  with  toilet  rooms  for  both  sexes  on 
every  floor.  This  arrangement  reduces  the  run- 
ning up-and-down  stairs  to  a  minimum  and  pre- 
vents the  congregation  of  large  groups  of  pupils 
in  a  room  where  they  are  not  under  the  teachers' 
supervision.  The  arrangement,  also  splits  up 
the  congestion  of  a  large  number  of  fixtures  into 
six  or  eight  sub-divisions,  each  located  in  a 
separate  room  with  an  outside  window,  thus 
securing  ventilation  and  light  in  an  amount 
vastly  superior  to  that  possible  in  the  basement. 

The  number  of  fixtures  required  for  any  given 
school  is  governed  entirely  by  the  number  and 
the  age  of  the  occupants.  It  is  probably  con- 
servative to  say  that  about  20  per  cent  greater 
toilet  accommodations  should  be  furnished  in  a 


grade  school,  embracing  the  classes  from  kinder- 
garten up  to  the  eighth  grade,  than  in  a  high 
school  in  which  the  average  age  is  from  15  to 
16  years. 

Regarding  the  number  of  fixtures,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  the  table  (Fig.  71),  in  which  five 
high  schools,  "HS,"  and  three  grammar  schools, 
"GS,"  all  recently  completed  and  placed  in  ser- 
vice, are  listed  in  a  comparison  of  the  number 
of  plumbing  fixtures  installed.  The  seoond  ver- 
tical column  gives  the  number  of  pupils  for 
whidh  each  building  is  designed;  the  third  col- 
umn, "WC,"  indicates  the  number  of  water 
closets  in  the  building,  and  the  fourth  column, 
"per  cent,"  indicaites  the  number  of  water  closets 
per  one  hundred  pupils.  Thus  wo  see  that  in 
High  School  No.  1,  designed  for  1050  pupils, 
there  aire  56  closets  installed,  or  5.33  closets  per 
one  hundred  pupils.  In  High  School  No.  2,  de- 
signed for  1150  pupils,  the  aooommodations  are 
not  nearly  so  great,  there  being  34  closets  in  all 
or  2.95  per  one  hundred  pupils.  Hig'h  School 
No.  1  is  undoubtedly  somewhat  high  (altho  not 
excessively  so)  while  High  School  No.  2  is  likely 
to  experience  difficulty  with  its  toilet  aooom- 
modations. 

High  Schools  3  and  4  may  be  assumed  as  be- 
ing nearer  the  average,  these  having  4.58  and 
3.67  for  closets  per  one  hundred  students.  High 
School  No.  5,  built  for  1800  pupils,  has  a  much 
higher  percentage  of  toilet  accommodation  per 
pupil  thruout,  owing  to  the  fact  that  this  build- 
ing carries  a  large  ilepartment  known  as  the 
"Shop  Section"  for  manual  training  consisting 
of  carpentry,  forge  work,  bench  shop,  wood 
turning,  etc.  All  of  the  shops  are  on  a  separate 
floor  and  accommodations  are  provided  on  the 
same  level,  thus  to  some  extent  duplicating 
fixtures  installed  on  other  floors. 

In  the  three  grade  schools  listed,  the  water 
closet  accommodations  are  higher  than  in  any 
of  the  high  schools  cited,  this  being  entirely  con- 
sistent and  accounted  for  by  the  presence  of  a 
large  number  of  very  small  children. 

The  fifth  column,  "U,"  gives  the  number  of 
urinals  installed  in  each  school.  It  is  estimated 
that  every  running  two  feet  of  a  trough  urinal 
are  counted  as  a  single  fixture.  It  is  apparent 
that  a  fairly  good  balance  is  maintained  in  both 


43 


44 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


the  high  schools  and  grammar  schools  in  pro- 
portioning these  fixtures,  few  varying  greatly 
from  the  average  of  1.79  per  one  hundred  pupils. 
In  the  seventh  column  "L"  are  listed  the 
lavatories,  which  in  High  School  No.  5  reach 
an  excessive  figure  owing  to  the  large  shop 
section  previously  mentioned.  The  ninth 
column  "DWF,"  shows  the  number  of  drinking 
water  fountains  installed,  High  School  No.  5 
being  excessive  on  this  point  also.  Probably  1.5 
fountains  per  one  hundred  pupils  can  be  con- 
sidered a  very  conservative  and  satisfactory 
figure. 


instead  of  the  number  of  pupils  served,  and  it 
reconciles  to  a  great  extent,  apparent  incon- 
sistencies shown  in  the  first  table.  For  instance. 
High  School  No.  5  (owing  to  its  large  size  to 
accommodate  the  shop  section)  in  the  second 
table  figures  low  on  both  its  closet  and  urinal 
accommodations.  It  is  still  a  little  high  on 
lavatories,  but  even  there  it  does  not  exceed 
Grammar  School  No.  3,  drinking  water  foun- 
tains being  the  only  fixtures  which  show  in 
excess  in  both  tables. 

The  percentage  of  fixtures  to  cubic  contents 
in  Fig.  72  is  figured  on  the  basis  of  100,000  cu. 


cAsr 

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WC 

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Fig.  71. 


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Fig.  72. 


The  second  last  column,  "SS,"  shows  the  num- 
ber of  slop  sinks  installed,  High  School  No.  5 
being  apparently  liberal  on  this  point  also.  The 
number  of  slop  sinks,  however,  is  determined 
not  so  much  by  the  number  of  pupils  as  by  con- 
venience of  access  by  the  janitor,  the  general 
practice  being  to  place  two  upon  each  floor  of 
a  large  school  and  one  upon  each  floor  of  a  small 
school. 

The  table  just  discussed  is  based  entirely  upon 
the  relation  which  the  number  of  fixtures  should 
bear  to  the  number  of  pupils  served.  This  pro- 
portion, as  previously  stated,  is  the  only  proper 
method  of  estimating  the  number  of  fixtures 
required.  As  a  check  upon  this,  the  table  shown 
in  Fig.  No.  72  is  also  very  interesting.  This 
table  is  worked  out  exactly  the  same  as  the  pre- 
vious table  with  the  exception  that  it  is  based 
upon  the  cubic  feet  contained  in  the  building 


ft.  so  that  a  percentage  of  2.80  water  closets 
m-eans  that  there  are  2.8  closets  for  every  hun- 
dred thousand  cubic  feet  contained  in  the  build- 
ing. Any  new  school  checked  with  the  average 
of  these  two  tables  should  give  a  high  and  low 
number  of  fixtures  which  may  be  used  as  prac- 
tical boundaries.  Fixtures  installed  somewheres 
between  these  two  limits  will  be  sufficient  to  give 
practical  service  and  yet  will  not  be  excessive. 
Their  location  on  the  different  floor  levels  should 
to  a  large  extent  be  determined  by  the  propor- 
tion of  pupils  located  on  the  respective  floors. 

If  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  install  the  main 
toilet  room  in  the  basement  an  arrangement 
such  as  indicated  in  Fig.  73  is  probably  one 
of  the  best  layouts  which  can  be  secured,  altho 
even  the  best  cannot  be  recommended.  In  this 
scheme  the  boys  come  down  a  stairway  at  one 
end  of  the  building  into  a  boys'  corridor  to  the 


VC 


^^@ 


sJn 


0 


0 

IP 


NUMBER  AND  LOCATION  OF  FIXTURES 


46 


wc 


wc 


tj 


B 


wc 


S 


ss 


rn 


hrc 


35 


D 


D      LJLJ       D 


J 


Gir/s  Corr/c/or  ^  £oy.s'  Cofridor 

Fig.  73. 


Fig.  75. 


Corndor 


L 


0 
(01 


G     I- 


wc 


rD©ss 


0 


J  £ 

Fig.  74 


Cofr/dor 
D 


B 

53     @rD 


a 


COffidor 


iL 


J     ^ 


Cor/'/do/' 

Durr  Dvr^^ 


4 


/-3 


/35 


^=3C^ 


55 


5^ 


MC 


^ 
/'T' 


iiJ2B 


1  d 

Fig.  76. 


P  ^    < 


WC 


TU 


0 
0 


46 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


main  toilet  room.  This  should  be  somewhere 
near  the  middle  of  the  building.  The  girls  fol- 
low a  similar  procedure  at  the  other  end,  but 
there  is  a  solid  partition  at  the  toilet  room 
separating  the  boys'  corridor  from  the  girls' 
corridor  and  effectually  preventing  any  conflict 
between  the  sexes  below  the  first  floor. 

The  fixtures  should  be  arranged  on  each  side 
of  a  vent  space  V  in  which  all  valves  and  piping 
can  be  located,  the  girls'  fixtures  in  the  girls' 
toilet  room  G  backing  up  against  one  side  of 
this  vent  space,  and  the  boys'  fixtures  in  the  boys' 
toilet  room  B  backing  up  against  the  other  side. 
If  desired  the  vent  space  V  can  be  continued 
to  the  corridor  wall  with  an  access  door  for 
repairs. 

In  all  the  toilet  rooins  shown  wibh  this  chapter 
WC  indicates  water  closets,  U  urinals,  L  lava- 
tories, SS  slop  sinks,  DWF  drinking  fountains 
and  FD  floor  drains. 

A  toilet  room  laid  out  in  tihis  manner  is  made 
as  desiraible  as  a  basement  toilet  can  be  made. 
A  vent  space,  V,  should  be  used  to  ventilate  the 
rooms  serving  this  purpose,  being  connected  to 
a  duct,  equipped  with  an  exhaust  fan,  which  dis- 
charges the  foul  air  from  the  building. 

The  ordinary  school  is  generally  constructed 
with  a  corridor  thru  the  center  and  classrooms 
on  'both  sides.    Toilet  rooms  located  on  the  upper 
floors  of  such   a  building  must 
necessarily    have     an    entrance 
door  from  the  corridor,   at  one 
end,  and  must  receive  light  and 
air  from  a  window  in  the  out- 
side   wall,    at    the 
other  end. 

For  this  reason, 
many  toilet  rooms 
are     narrow     in 


width  but  are  equal  in  length  to  the  width  of  the 
ordinary  classroom. 

Two  toilet  rooms  built  in  this  shape  are  shown 
dn  Fig.  74;  G  indicates  the  girls'  toilet  room, 
B  the  boys'  toilet  room,  and  D  the  door.  The 
rooms  are  located  at  opposite  ends  of  tlie  main 
corridor  and  have  entrances  directly  therefrom. 
The  rooms  are  repeated  on  each  floor  level  of  the 
building.  Several  criticisms  can  be  made  in 
this  arrangement,  first  of  which  is  the  fact  that 
no  screen  is  present  to  prevent  the  passerby  in 
the  corridor  from  obtaining  a  full  viiew  of  the 
toilet  room  whenever  the  door  is  opened.  Second, 
the  slop  sink,  in  case  of  the  girls'  toilet  room, 
is  located  as  far  from  the  door  as  it  could  be, 
instead  of  close  to  the  door  for  the  convenience 
of  the  janitor.  In  fact,  the  slop  sink  should  not 
be  placed  in  a  toilet  room  but  s'hould  be  located 


Cofr/do/' 

Fig.  77. 


NUMBER  AND  LOCATION  OF  FIXTURES 


47 


in  its  own  oloset.  This  will  be  shown  in  other 
layouts  which  are  much  more  satisfactory. 

In  Fig.  75  we  have  another  similar  toilet 
room  in  which  the  slop  sink  is  placed  in  a  much 
more  desirable  position  and  where  the  screens  S, 
which  are  equipped  with  swinging  doors,  effect- 
ually shut  out  observation  when  the  corridor 
dcor,  D,  is  open.  The  school,  however,  has  made 
a  serious  error  in  the  omission  of  lavatories  from 
the  toilet  room.  These  should  never  be  omitted ; 
at  least  one  or  two  are  necessary  in  all  cases. 

In  Fig.  76  are  sihown  much  better  rooms  of 
this  type.  These  two  toilets  have  the  following 
desirable  paints :  The  opening  of  the  door  D  is 
screened  by  a  second  door  S ;  the  lavatories  L  are 
located  near  the  window;  a  private  toilet,  FT,  is 
installed  in  the  girls'  toilet  room,  G;  and,  the 
slop  sink,  SS,  is  placed  in  its  own  closet  where 
it  can  be  reached  by  the  janitor  without  entering 
the  toilet  room.  Immediately  outside  the  toilet 
room  in  the  main  coridor,  drinking  water  foun- 
tains, DWF,  are  hung,  and  the  space  behind  the 
fountains,  FS,  is  used  for  ventilating  flues.    It 


is  to  be  regretted  that  in  this  school  where  the 
toilet  facilities  have  been  well  taken  care  of  the 
use  of  the  trough  urinal,  TU,  should  have  been 
allowed. 

In  Fig.  77  is  shown  a  combined  toilet  room 
which,  however  is  possible  only  in  schools  where 
more  than  one  main  corridor  exists.  In  this 
particular  case  one  wing  of  the  building  runs  at 
an  angle  to  the  main  portion  producing  an 
angular  main  corridor  as  shown.  On  the  angu- 
lar corridor,  entrance  to  the  girls'  toilet  room, 
G,  is  obtained  thru  a  door  screened  by  the  two 
screens,  S.  A  private  toilet  is  placed  in  the  end 
of  the  room;  here  also  is  a  towel  chute  TC.  In 
the  boys'  toilet  room,  B,  a  screen,  S,  and  in- 
dividual urinal  fixtures  are  also  provided.  The 
janitor  has  his  own  closet  with  a  slop  sink,  this 
closet  being  large  enough  in  which  to  do  con- 
siderable washing  and  cleaning,  if  necessary. 
There  is  absolutely  no  criticism  to  make  in  the 
arrangement  of  fixtures  in  this  toilet  room,  and 
it  is  regretted  that  the  layout  is  not  such  as  to 
make  it  applicable  to  schools  in  general. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


Toilet  Partitions — Shower  Baths 


The  matter  of  partitions  in  toilet  rooms  is  a 
most  important  one  and  should  be  given  careful 
consideration  by  every  school  board.  These  par- 
titions ought  to  be  non-absorbent,  substantial, 
pleasing  in  appearance,  and  should  be  built  with 
the  least  possible  amount  of  metal  work.  For- 
merly and  even  at  the  present  time  slate  is 
much  used,  aitho  alberene  stone  has  of  late 
years  been  widely  adopted.  Marble  is  seldom, 
if  ever  used,  in  school  work  owing  to  the  ex- 
pense, while  Argentine  glass  undoubtedly  pro- 
duces the  finest  kind  of  result. 

Argentine  glass  is  milk-white  and  non-trans- 
parent. It  is  produced  in  sheets  about  one  inch 
thick,  and  gives  an  inviting  and  sanitary  ap- 
pearance attained  by  no  other  miaterial.  This 
glass,  of  course,  will  not  stand  so  much  hard 
usage  as  other  materials  and  it  is  therefore  im- 
practicable to  build  partitions  of  it  except  where 
a  reasonable  amount  of  care  may  be  expected. 
For  instance,  Argentine  glass  partitions  may 
be  used  in  high  schools  but  never  in  grammar 
schools. 

Where  alberene  stone  is  employed  it  is  cut  in 
slabs  one  inch  or  one  and  a  quarter  inches 
thick,  is  polished  and  made  up  with  rabbetted 
joints.  The  alberene  partition  is  of  a  grayish 
color  with  long  black  veins  which  are  likely  to 
extend  thru  portions  of  the  stone.  These  veins 
give  the  appearance  of  weakness  with  danger  of 
possible  future  cracks;  but  this  danger  is  con- 
fined to  aippearance  only,  as  the  stone  is  at 
least  as  strong — if  not  stronger — at  the  veins 
thian  in  the  clear  material. 

Slate,  the  old  standard  material,  requires 
little  argument  or  explanation  owing  to  its  ex- 
tensive use.  Almost  every  school  employs  slate 
partitions  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent.  The 
chief  objection — if  it  is  an  objection — ^to  slate, 
is  the  appearance  which  is  dark  and  uninviting. 
Slate  partitions  also  offer  much  opportunity 
for  scratching  and  for  miarking  oibjectionable 
pictures  and  writing  on  the  toilet  room  walls. 
This  latter,  of  course,  is  highly  undesirable. 

One  school  board  has,  after  much  experimen- 
tation, adopted  the  slate  partition  painted  white, 
and  provides  each  janitor  with  a  can  of  quick 


diying  white  paint.  Every  day  at  the  close  of 
the  school  session  the  partitions  and  walls  are 
inspected  and  all  writings  are  disposed  of  in  a 
moment  by  a  little  white  paint.  This  paint  be- 
comes dry  before  the  beginning  of  the  school 
session  the  next  morning. 

The  normal  water  closet  enclosure  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  78  should  be  about  4  ft.  or  4  ft. 
6  in.  deep,  6  ft.  6  in.  high  and  should  have  the 
back  set  out  6  in.  from  the  wall  to  conceal  the 
piping  and  also  to  serve  as  vent  space.  While 
the  backs  of  the  enclosure  should  extend  solid 
to  the  floor,  the  partitions  between  the  enclo- 
sures should  be  supported  12  in.  above  the  floor, 
to  permit  the  free  circulation  of  air  about  and 
around  the  fixtures.  The  partition  slabs  are 
usually  supported  by  angle  clips  and  by  being 
set  into  the  back  slab,  while  at  the  front  iron  or 
brass  standards  are  used.  The  standards  gen- 
erally extend  down  and  are  embedded  in  the 
floor. 

The  wainscot  is  usually  made  of  the  same 
material  as  the  partitions  and  compartments, 
aitho  sometimes  a  tile  wainscot  is  used.  This 
should  extend  the  same  height,  namely  6  ft. 
6  in.  above  the  floor.  It  is  usually  provided 
with  a  small  cap  piece  for  a  finish.  In  Fig.  79 
a  view  is  shown  of  the  same  type  of  compart- 
ments (looking  the  other  way)  indicating  the 
most  satisfactory  method  of  ventilating  a  toilet 
room,  namely,  thru  a  register  R  placed  back 
of  the  water  closet.  This  does  away  with  all 
discussion  as  to  the  sanitary  or  insanitary  qual- 
ities of  the  local  vent  closet  and  secures  equal 
or  possibly  superior  ventilation  results. 

Let  me  call  attention  to  a  danger  which  seems 
to  be  on  the  increase.  This  is  the  instilling 
into  the  younger  generation  of  what  might  be 
termed  a  "lack  of  decency"  for  which  some 
boards  are  almost  criminally  responsible.  It  is 
not  believed  that  any  member  of  any  modern 
school  board  would  install  a  water  closet  in  his 
own  home  in  an  open  hall  without  screens  where 
members  of  the  family  are  constantly  passing 
back  and  forth.  Yet  in  the  school,  toilet  rooms 
(in  which  a  constant  promenade  is  going  back 
and  forth)    are   often  provided  with  fixtures — 


48 


TOILET  PARTITIONS— SHOWER  BATHS 


49 


1 


'■  >f:\f ..'  ■•' «■  *,  A  i.  f '«  J.  i  ^.v  »••'  ■• .  * 


•>'■••'  ■/■;' '  ' 


>•:>•■♦,•'••"»>,' 


Jht'tZ-tiofi   -• 


s 


Wa/nscof"- 


/r/oor 


I 


<*-< ;  r  *■; « .« * ;  ?  .■■'  ?  j^"  ;j° '« .•••'*.%•■  •  •<  •;■'  • «:  ^  •"•v  -v:  ''-.'^  •••  • 


Fig.  78. 


:^ 


^^ 


I 


Fig.  79. 


Wainscot 


3cfecf7 


/-r/oof 


."- •  •'■;'<'."i>~;e  V.i*  •**'"-:  D^;-.  "•  e  -^-'.  *  -: :  *-• 


Fig.  80. 


i 


y.  ^CeiJ/ng  V/ 


I 

I 


i 


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ifT'art/T/on 

JVo/nscot-^ 


; 


2z     VJ  Ycyt^'kS^?^    ^r/oor         % 


Fig.  81. 


50 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


possibly  with  screens  between  them — without 
doors  and  provocative  of  a  lack  of  modesty 
which  is  far  from  what  parents  desire. 

As  an  example  of  this  we  have  toilet  rooms  in 
many  schools  built  somewhat  on  the  scheme 
shown  in  Fig.  80  in  which  a  simple  dividing 
screen,  made  of  sheet  iron  and  supported  on  a 
piece  of  bent  pipe,  is  used  to  avoid  the  expense 
of  a  proper  closet  partition.  Arguments  in 
favor  of  this  arrangement  can  be  heard  on  the 
basis  of  economy,  better  circulation  of  air,  in- 
creased light,  etc.,  etc.  But  after  all  advantages 
have  been  duly  weighed,  the  fact  cannot  be  over- 
come that  water  closets  installed  in  this  manner 
should  be  considered  a  nuisance  by  the  com- 
munity, and  the  board  responsible  for  such  an 
installation  should  be  severely  censured. 

It  should  be  remembered  that,  where  a  pupil 
is  required  by  law  to  attend  school  a  certain 
number  of  hours  a  day,  he  or  she  must  of  neces- 
sity use  the  toilet  fixtures  provided  by  the  school 
board  and  that  the  board,  in  failing  to  provide 
suitable  enclosures,  indirectly  forces  a  pupil, 
willingly  or  unwillingly,  to  use  the  facilities 
provided.  Under  such  a  condition  of  affairs 
school  boards  should  be  doubly  careful  in  the 
arrangement  of  toilet  rooms  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  fitted  up. 

This  subject  brings  up  another.  It  was  for- 
merly the  custom  to  omit  partitions  entirely  on 
all  types  of  urinals,  yet  it  is  encouraging  to 
note  that  the  use  of  a  slab  partition  between 
the  fixtures  as  shown  in  Fig.  81  and  the  divid- 
ing off  of  the  trough  urinal  by  similar  parti- 
tions is  gradually  coming  into  practice.  Fig.  81 
is  a  good  example  of  individual  fixtures,  prop- 
erly partitioned,  with  a  vent  space  in  the  rear 
into  which  an  integral  local  vent  from  the  fix- 
tures, or  a  local  vent  from  the  pipe  below  the 
fixtures,  can  be  connected. 

Shower  bath  stalls  are  built  in  three  ways. 
The  first  is  the  individual  shower  bath  stall  as 
shown  in  Fig.  82.  This  stall  is  about  3  ft. 
square  and  6  ft.  6  in.  high.  The  walls  are  car- 
ried down  to  the  floor  slab  on  all  sides  and  the 
doorway  is  cut  down  to  within  6  in.  of  the  floor, 
the  6  in.  below  this  point  serving  as  a  curb  to 
retain  the  splashing  water.  The  top  of  the  door- 
way is  formed  by  a  rod  which  serves  as  a  brace 
for  the  slabs,  and  from  which  the  curtain  is 
hung  by  rings. 

The  second  type  of  shower  bath  is  that  com- 


bined with  the  dressing  room  as  shown  in  Fig. 
83.  This  consists  of  a  shower  bath  compart- 
ment as  just  described,  the  compartment  in  this 
case,  however,  opening  into  a  dressing  room  of 
similar  size.  A  curtain  is  used  between  the 
dressing  room  and  shower  and  a  dwarf  door, 
similar  to  a  water  closet  door  as  shown,  is  used 
to  screen  the  dressing  room.  In  many  cases  it 
has  been  found  desirable  to  cover  the  tops  of 
compartments  with  a  wire  screen,  as  indicated 
in  the  drawing,  to  prevent  the  stealing  of 
clothes,  towels,  etc.,  by  pupils  in  the  adjacent 
compartments,  and  to  prevent  skylarking  and 
the  throwing  of  missiles  into  the  compartments 
when  they  are  occupied.  Care  shouM  be  taken 
in  an  arrangement  of  this  kind  to  leave  suffi- 
cient room  under  the  dwarf  door  so  that  in 
ease  of  emergency  access  to  the  interior  can  be 
had  by  the  instructor  by  crawling  under  the 
door  and  unlocking  the  same.  Several  cases 
have  been  known  where  persons  have  been  taken 
suddenly  ill  or  have  fainted  while  using  a 
shower  thus  requiring  immediate  attention  and 
outside  help. 

The  third  tj-pe  of  shower  is  shown  in  Fig.  84. 
This    consists    of    a    shower    compartment    as 


Fig.  82. 


TOILET  PARTITIONS— SHOWER  BATHS 


51 


■J?ressing 
Koom 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  84. 


52 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


I 

I 


Fig.  85. 


previously  described  and  an  outer  room  18  to 
24  in(ihes  wide  in  which  a  hook  is  placed.  The 
purpose  of  this  outer  room  is  to  keep  dry  a  sheet 
or  dressing  gown,  bath  slippers  and  bath  towel. 
Showers  arranged  in  this  manner  are  generally 
used  in  connection  with  a  girls'  locker  room. 
The  arrangement  is  somewhat  as  shown  in  Fig. 
85,  where  S  indicates  the  showers  and  outer 
rooms,  the  unmarked  compartments  are  dress- 
ing rooms;  P.  S.  is  a  pipe  space,  between  the 
two  rows  of  shower  baths,  and  D  an  access  door 
for  repairs.  In  a  scheme  of  this  kind  each  girl 
pupil  is  assigned  a  dressing  room  in  which  she 
removes  her  outer  clothing  preparatory  to  the 
use  of  the  shower.  Sheets  are  usually  pro- 
vided by  the  school  to  be  worn  in  passing  from 
the  dressing  room  to  the  shower  bath,  altho 
some  pupils  prefer  to  use  a  bathrobe  or  dressing 
gown.  It  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  85  that  while 
some  of  the  dressing  rooms  are  very  convenient 
to  the  showers  others  are  at  a  considerable 
distance. 

The  method  of  procedure  for  the  pupils  is 
briefly  as  follows :  Wrapped  in  sheets  and  wear- 
ing slippers,  the  girls  pass  from  their  individ- 
ual dressing  rooms  to  the  outer  rooms  of  the 
showers.  These  outer  rooms  may  be  protected 
by  a  curtain  or  a  dwarf  door  similar  to  the  one 
previously  shown.  The  towels,  sheets  or  gowns 
and  slippers  are  placed  in  the  outer  rooms  and 
the  shower  baths  taken  in  the  adjacent  shower 
compartments,    curtains    being   placed   between 


the  outer  rooms  and  the  showers  in  order  to 
keep  the  articles  in  the  outer  rooms  dry.  On 
completion  of  the  bath  the  pupils  dry  them- 
selves in  the  shower  compartments,  step  into 
the  outer  rooms,  don  slippers  and  sheets  or  robes 
and  return  to  the  dressing  rooms  to  complete 
their  dressing. 

There  are  great  advantages  with  this  ar- 
rangement involving  as  it  does  a  minimum  time 
in  the  shower  and  making  fewer  showers  serve 
a  larger  number  of  pupils  satisfactorily.  It 
allows  the  showers  to  be  placed  closely  together, 
simplifies  and  economizes  the  plumbing,  and 
above  all  allows  the  pupil  the  privacy  which  all 
are  justified  in  demanding. 

The  metal  work  for  partitions  should  be  kept 
down  to  the  smallest  possible  amount.  Such  as 
must  be  used  is  generally  made  to  correspond 
with  the  fixture  trimmings.  Nickel  plated  brass 
is  more  commonly  used  than  any  other  one 
material,  yet  it  is  far  from  being  satisfactory 
for  continued  service.  The  nickel — if  polished 
— soon  wears  off  and,  if  not  polished,  gets  dirty 
and  becomes  covered  with  verdigris  caused  by 
thf  splashing  water  which  combines  with  the 
copper  in  the  brass  body  underneath. 

Polished  brass  is  used  to  some  extent,  this 
material  being  of  solid  metal  and  always  of  the 
same  standard  appearance  when  kept  polished. 
It  is  cheaper  than  nickel  plated  material. 

Ked  metal  is  brass  with   an  unusually  high 


TOILET  PARTITIONS— SHOWER  BATHS 


53 


amount  of  copper  in  the  composition  (85  per 
cent  or  more) ;  this  is  being  adopted  in  some 
of  the  newer  schools. 

White  metal  is  by  far  the  anost  satisfactory 
of  all  the  various  materials,  but  it  is  also  much 
higher  in  cost.  It  is  a  metallic  composition 
which  has  exactly  the  appearance  of  nickel  plate, 


but  is  liable  to  tarnish  less  quickly.  Its  use 
is  recommended  wherever  financial  considera- 
tions permit.  Sometimes  economy  can  be  ef- 
fected by  using  galvanized  cast  iron  piping 
underneath  the  lavatories  and  painting  same 
with  white  enamel  to  match  the  color  of  the 
fixture. 


GIRLS'  SHOWER  ROU.M   IN  A   NEW  ENGLAND  SCHOOL. 


CHAPTER  IX 


Water  Supply  Systems 


There  is  little  of  greater  importance  in  the 
modern  school  than  an  adequate  supply  of  clean 
and  pure  water  at  a  cost  not  so  high  as  to  be 
excessive.  In  some  dis.tricts  where  schools  are 
erected  a  good  municipal  or  private  company- 
water  system  in  service  with  reasonable  rates 
and  pressure  solves  the  difficulty,  but  in  other 
cases  conditions  must  be  met  which  involve  cal- 
culations based  on  the  height  of  .the  building, 
probable  amount  of  water  used  yearly,  cost  of 
water  per  cubic  foot,  cost  of  coal,  and  interest 
on  pumping  equipment.  It  is  not  at  all  im- 
possible that  it  rday  prove  cheaper  to  drive  a 
well  on  the  premises  and  pump  all  water  used 
than  it  would  be  to  buy  the  supply  from  a  local 
corporation. 

A  water  supply  may  require  special  attention 
from  any  one  of  the  following  reasons : 

(a)  No  supply  of  any  kind  available. 

(lb)  Proper  water  but  insufficient  pressure. 

(c)  Proper  water  but  too  high  pressure. 

(d)  Proper  water  but  with  great  fluctuation 
in  pressure. 

(e)  Water  not  fit  for  use  without  purification. 

(f)  Water  supply  not  to  be  depended  upon  at 
all  times. 

(g)  Any  combination  of  the  above. 

Where  no  water  supply  is  available  a  driven 
well  and  pump  are  the  usual  recourse.  In  this 
case  the  water  is  either  pumped  into  an  elevated 
tank  (maintaining  the  proper  pressure  on  the 
school  by  gravity),  or  it  is  pumped  into  a  so- 
called  "pneumatic"  tank  in  which  compressed 
air  is  confined,  the  pressure  of  the  compressed 


air  tending  to  drive  the  water  out  of  the  tank 
when  a  faucet  is  opened  and  thus  keeping  the 
building  under  proper  pressure. 

A  typical  pneumatic  system  recently  installed 
in  one  of  the  new  high  schools  is  shown  in  Fig. 
86,  being  arranged  as  shown  diagrammatically 
in  Fig.  87.  Here  the  pneumatic  tank  T  with  a 
manhole  Mh  and  supported  on  the  piers  P  is 
filled  by  the  water  pump  WP  driven  by  the 
motor  M.  The  operation  of  this  apparatus  is 
entirely  automatic  being  controlled  by  the  regu- 
lator E  which  operates  the  electric  switch  S  con- 
trolling the  wires  W  to  the  motor  M.  The  water 
from  the  pump  is  discharged  past  the  air  cush- 
ion AC,  the  air  supply  being  maintained  in  the 
tank  by  the  use  of  the  little  belted  air  com- 
pressor C  This  compressor  is  a  necessary  ad- 
jvmct  to  all  pneumatic  systems  as  the  air  in 
the  tank,  when  under  pressure  and  in  contact 
with  the  water,  becomes  entrained  in  the  water 
in  the  form  of  minute  bubbles.  This  process 
results,  of  course,  in  gradually  withdrawing  the 
air  from  the  tank  making  necessary  some  means 
of  renewal.  The  bubbles  give  the  water  a  pecu- 
liar milklike  appearance  when  drawn  at  the 
faucet. 

With  an  elevated  gravity  tank  several  dif- 
ficulties and  objections  are  likely  to  arise.  In 
the  first  place  it. must  be  supported — no  mean 
proposition  when  it  is  considered  that  a  5,000 
t-.")  10,000  gallon  tank  (customary  size  for 
schools)  weighs  from  45,000  to  90,000  pounds 
or  an  average  of  33  tons!  This  tank  miist  be 
placed  on  a  floor  at  least  one  story  above  the 


Fig.  87 

54 


WATER  SUPPLY  SYSTEMS 


55 


Fig.  86.     Pneumatic  Tank  in  a  New  School. 


Fig.  88.     Drinking  Water  Filters  of  Good  Type. 


56 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  90. 


floor  on  which  the  highest  fixture  stands  in  order 
to  get  sufficient  pressure  on  the  uppermost  fix- 
tures. The  tank  should  be  housed  in  and  cov- 
ered to  keep  it  clear  of  dust  and  dirt;  it  must 
be  protected  against  freezing,  and  after  all  tliese 
matters  are  attended  to  it  will  still  allow  the 
water  therein  to  become  warm  or  tepid  in  hot 
weather. 

A  pneumatic  tank  can  be  buried  in  the  ground 
so  as  to  keep  the  water  supply  fairly  cold  and 


(with  the  possible  exception  of  an  objection  to 
carrying  a  tank  at  such  high  pressure  in  the 
basement  of  the  school)  it  is  undoubtedly  more 
satisfactory  and  certainly  cheaper  than  an  ele- 
vated gravity  tank. 

When  water  at  too  high  a  pressure  is  en- 
countered a  reducing  valve  must  be  used.  Water 
delivered  at  more  than  75  pounds  pressure  is 
objectionable  to  use.  It  produces  leaks  read- 
ily, and  wears  out  faucets  because  they  must  be 


Fig.  91. 


WATER  SUPPLY  SYSTEMS 


57 


^ 


D 


-^. 


-3upp/y  Main 

in  Koof  jSpoce. 


ConTfo/ 
VoJi/e 


-Aif  Cushion 
f-  Connection  to 


/ 


Aif  Cushion 


Connect/on  to 
Lowest  rixtute 


3uppJyMo/n 
in  jBosement^ 

Conttot 
Va/ve 


Fig.  92. 

turned  off  tightly;  it  makes  more  frequent  the 
renewal  of  faucet  washers  and  produces  '''ham- 
mering" and  undesirable  splashing  when  the 
faucets  are  opened.  In  fact,  45  pounds  per 
square  inch  pressure  in  the  basement  is  a  very 
good  figure  to  carry.  Reducing  valves  can  be 
obtained  for  almost  any  desired  reduction  of 
pressure,  the  usual  reduction  being  from  80  to 
150  pounds  down  to  45  to  70  pounds. 

When  great  variations  in  pressure  occur  it  is 
often  most  economical  to  use  a  gravity  tank, 
allowing  this  to  fill  without  pumping  when  the 
pressure  is  high  and  making  it  large  enough  to 
carry  the  school  until  the  next  period  of  high 
pressure  at  which  time  it  will  be  re-filled.  If 
the  pressure  even  at  the  highest  point  is  not 
sufficient  to  force  the  water  up  into  the  tank, 
then  pumping  must  be  resorted  to  and  a  pneu- 
matic equipment  will  probably  be  more  satis- 
factory. 

Water  is  sometimes  obtained  which  is  sandy 
(for  instance  river  water  or  lake  water  in  time 


of  spring  rains)  or  it  may  be  contaminated  by 
bacteria  from  various  sources.  Sand  and  grit 
are  very  undesirable  as  they  get  into  flush 
valves,  shower  valves,  etc.,  and  clog  their  opera- 
tion, besides  cutting  washers,  lodging  on  valve 
seats  and  causing  other  annoyance.  This  trouble 
can  be  disposed  of  by  use  of  pressure  filters 
which  employ  sand,  quartz,  charcoal,  and  other 
mediums  for  filtration.  The  filters  for  a  large 
sized  school  will  cost  from  $1,200  to  $1,500,  if 
of  the  best  make  and  materials.  Cheaper  filters 
can,  of  course,  be  had,  but  they  are  a  poor  econ- 
omy in  the  long  run. 

For  bacterial  impurities,  filters  are  also  used 
altho  not  so  efficiently.  When  water  is  driven 
thru  a  filter  a  sort  of  mat  forms  on  the  surface 
in  which  certain  bacterialogical  processes  are 
carried  on  resulting  in  partial  purification,  this 
purifying  being  further  assisted  by  bone  black 
or  charcoal.  The  use  of  filters,  in  general,  may 
be  said  to  be  at  its  best  when  confined  solely  to 
clarifying  water — that  is,  removing  substances 
floating  or  not  dissolved  in  the  water — since 
anything  in  solution  is  affected  little,  if  any, 
by  filtration.  A  double  cylinder  filter  of  the  best 
type  is  shown  in  Fig.  88,  this  being  arranged  so 
that  the  water  passes  thru  first  one  cylinder  and 
then  the  other,  thus  giving  really  two  separate 
filterings. 

For  sterilized  water  there  are  four  standard 
processes — distillation  and  recondensing,  boiling 
or  raising  to  boiling  point,  chemical  treatment 
and  electrical  treatment.  Distillation  produces 
water  which,  however  pure  it  may  be,  is  at  the 
same  time  robbed  of  its  salts,  gases  and  other 
substances.  The  result  is  a  flat  and  unpalatable 
— tho  pure — product. 

By  boiling  or  by  just  raising  to  the  boiling 
point  (which  is  better)  water  fairly  free  oi 
bacteria  can  be  obtained  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  its  original  characteristics.  This 
process  has  gained  great  favor.    Electrical  treat- 


T/^htPu/Zey- 
^  sJioose  f{j//ey\ 


Z  "Suct/orj 
Z"D/sch.^T% 


Fig.  93. 


58 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  89. 


Fig.  95.     Water  Supply  in  School  with  Pressure  Reducing  Valve, 
Temporary  Meter,  By-pass,  Etc. 


WATER  SUPPLY  SYSTEMS 


59 


ment  by  means  of  ultra-violet  rays  produced  by 
a  special  electric  lamp  in  a  crystal  bulb  is  more 
expensive  but  at  the  same  time  more  satisfac- 
tory than  any  of  the  other  methods.  Positively 
no  change  whatsoever  is  made  in  the  water  or 
its  taste  but  the  bacteria  are  absolutely  killed 
within  a  fraction  of  a  second  after  exposure  to 
the  ultra-violet  rays.  To  make  this  system 
practical  the  water  must  be  clear.  It  may  prove 
necessary,  however,  in  some  cases  to  install 
filters  in  conjunction  with  the  electric  steril- 
izer. A  view  of  an  ultra-violet  ray  sterilizer  in- 
stalled in  the  Bennett  School,  Millbrook,  N.  Y., 
is  shown  in  Fig.  89. 

If  for  any  reason,  a  roof  tank  or  "house" 
tank  is  decided  upon,  it  will  be  more  economical 
to  put  the  main  water  pipe  in  the  ceiling,  or 
roof  space,  over  the  top  floor.  This  is,  of  course, 
provided  the  construction  of  the  building  per- 
mits; if  there  is  no  such  space  the  entire  water 
supply  must  be  carried  down  and  fed  from  the 
basement  as  shown  in  Fig.  90.  This  illustra- 
tion is  an  oblique  projection  of  an  ordinary 
school  system  arranged  with  a  house  tank  HT 
in  the  pent  house  PH  and  supplying  risers 
thru  a  basement  main  as  just  described;  the 
pump  HP  is  used  in  this  case  to  fill  the  house 
tank  thru  the  check  valve  C  and  gate  valve  (t 
when  required.  Fig.  91  is  a  view  of  a  similar 
system  assuming  that  a  pneumatic  tank  is  used 
(located  in  the  basement  as  shown).  In  this 
case  the  risers  R  are  fed  from  the  main  supply 
header  MSH  located  in  the  basement  and  sup- 
plied by  water  under  pressure  in  the  pneumatic 
tank  PT.  The  water  is  pumped  into  the  pneu- 
matic tank  by  the  pump  P. 

With  the  roof  space,  or  "top  feed,"  system  the 
pipe  risers  are  arranged  as  shown  at  "A,"  Fig. 
92;  but  with  a  basement,  or  "bottom  feed,"  the 
vertical  pipes  are  arranged  as  shown  at  "B." 
The  valves  allow  repairs  to  be  made  on  any 
riser  without  interfering  with  any  other  fixtures 
except  the  ones  located  on  that  particular  riser. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  type  of  water  pump 
(not  a  well  pump)  for  schools  is  a  little  direct 
connected,  motor  driven,  centrifugal  pump  such 
ad  is  shown  in  Fig.  93.  A  pump  of  this  kind 
does  not  require  packing,  has  no  pulsation  (when 
starting  up  it  gradually  builds  up  a  pressure 
until  it  exceeds  the  back  pressure  of  the  dis- 
charge pipe)  and  has  only  one  moving  part — 
an  interior  rotating  paddle  wheel  or  impeller 
which  is  simply  a  plain  iron  or  steel  casting. 


Fig.  94.     Centrifugal  Motor  Driven  "House  Pump"  with  auto- 
matic control  and  pressure  gage. 

The  pump  shown  has  also  a  special  tight  and 
loose  pulley  to  allow  belt  drive  after  discon- 
necting from  the  motor  if  at  any  time  the  cur- 
rent is  cut  off.  The  belt  can  be  driven  by  a 
gas  engine,  hot  air  or  steam  engine  or  other 
mechanical  means  which  local  conditions  permit. 
Provided  the  motor  is  of  direct  current  type  the 
tight  and  loose  pulleys  can  be  omitted,  and  an 
electric  storage  battery  can  be  used  to  supply 
current  to  the  motor.  A  storage  battery  will 
cost  considerably  more  than  a  gas  or  steam 
engine  drive  even  tho  the  latter  may  not  be 
quite  so  convenient.  A  view  of  such  a  pump, 
actually  installed  with  automatic  control  and 
pressure  gage,  is  shown  in  Fig.  94. 

Care  should  te  exercised  not  to  be  deceived 
on  water  pressure.  For  instance,  a  school  is 
proposed  on  a  site  where  the  minimum  street 
water  pressure  is-  35  pounds,  and  the  highest 
60  pounds.  This  means  about  35  pounds  in  the 
basement  of  the  school  at  least  with  a  possible 
60  pounds  at  certain  times.  Suppose  it  is  ex- 
pected to  use  filters  and  compression  tank  water 
closets  with  some  of  the  closets  located  on  the 


60 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


third  floor.  Let  us  see  if  the  pressure  is  suf- 
ficient : 

Compression  closets  require  15  pounds  to  flush 
satisfactorily. 

Three  stories  at  12  feet  equals  36  feet  by  .43 
pound  equals  15J  pounds  loss  for  head. 

Filter  loss  equals  5  pounds. 

Vipe  loss  (friction)  5  pounds  to  7  pounds. 

Total  loss,  15,  15J,  5  and  5  to  7,  or  40J  to 
42^  pounds.  This  shows  that  part  of  the  time 
the  closets  on  the  top  floor  would  fail  to  operate 
properly. 

A  view  taken  in  a  newly  completed  school  is 


shown  in  Fig.  95.  In  this  school  it  was  neces- 
sary to  reduce  the  water  pressure  for  use,  the 
street  supply  coming  in  at  S,  passing  thru  the 
temporary  water  meter  M,  the  pressure  reducing 
valve  PRV  and  into  the  house  line  H.  Either 
the  meter  or  the  pressure  reducing  valve  (or 
both)  can  be  cut  out  for  repairs  by  closing 
valves  on  either  side  and  opening  valves  on  the 
by-pass  B.  The  fire  line  is  taken  off  at  F  so 
as  to  be  subjected  to  the  high  pressure  on  the 
street  side  of  the  reducing  valve.  The  tempor- 
ary meter  was  installed  for  use  during  construc- 
tion and  will  later  be  replaced  with  one  of 
proper  size. 


TYPICAL  SCHOOL  SWIMMING  POOL. 


CHAPTER  X 


Hot  Water  Systems 


The  school  of  today  should  be  provided  with 
a  hot  water  system  whic'h  will  supply  hot  water 
to  all  lavatories,  shower  baths,  sinks  and  slop 
sinks.  Before  the  introduction  of  showers  pro- 
vision for  hot  water  was  often  omitted  from 
schoiols,  it  being  argued  that  the  lavatories  would 
answer  their  purposes  reasonably  well  when  sup- 
plied with  cold  water  only.  This  was  undoubt- 
edly true.  The  introduction  of  showers,  how- 
ever, at  once  necessitates  the  installation  of  a 
certain  amount  of  hot  water  equipment,  to- 
gether with  the  required  piping.  Under  these 
conditions,  it  is  a  matter  of  only  small  addi- 
tional expense  to  supply  the  other  fixtures  with 
hot  water,  making  the  system  complete  thruout. 

To  give  satisfactory  service  in  the  modern 
school  building,  it  is  necessary  for  a  hot  water 
system  to  be  installed  so  as  to  circulate  hot 
water  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  fixtures  sup- 
plied. With  the  plain,  "dead-end"  hot  water 
system,  without  circulation  pipes,  the  water  lies 
stagnant  in  the  pipes  and  constantly  cools  off 
therein,  making  it  necessary  to  draw  off  this 
cooled  water  thru  the  faucet  outlet  before  hot 
water  can  be  obtained.  Where  shower  baths  are 
installed  the  hot  water  piping  is  necessarily  of 
fairly  large  size  and  this  requires  that  a  con- 
siderable body  of  water  be  thus  drawn  off. 

To  avoid  this  waste  the  circulating  system  is 
used,  by  means  of  which  a  constant  circulation 
of  water  thru  the  hot  water  lines  is  maintained, 
this  circulation  extending  up  to  the  point  where 
the  "dead-end"  or  non-circulating  branch  to  a 
fixture  is  connected  to  the  main.  To  obtain  hot 
water  under  these  conditions,  it  is  necessary 
to  draw  out  only  the  small  amount  of  water 
contained  in  the  pipe  between  the  faucet  fixture 
and  the  circulation  line,  which  (with  careful 
designing)  can  be  kept  down  to  so  small  an 
amount  as  to  make  delivery  of  hot  water  almost 
immediate. 

Circulation  systems  are  of  two  kinds  and  are 
known  respectively  as  the  "downfeed"  or  "over- 
head system"  and  the  "upfeed"  or  "basement" 
system.  Of  these  two  systems  better  results  are 
obtained  so  far  as  circulation  goes,  with  the 
overhead  system.     By  this  method  it  is  neces- 


sary to  carry  all  of  the  hot  water  to  the  roof 
space  above  the  top  fioor  ceiling  and  then  to 
feed  (from  this  roof  space)  vertical  hot  water 
drops  down  and  thru  to  the  basement.  Here  the 
drops  are  collected  together  into  a  hot  water 
return  line  which  goes  back  to  the  hot  water 
tank. 

The  cooling  of  the  water  as  it  stands  in  the 
drops  causes  it  to  contract  thereby  increasing 
its  weight.  The  weight  of  the  water  in  the  main 
hot  water  riser  carried  up  to  the  roof  space  is 
not  thus  affected.  This  results  in  the  water  in 
the  drops  sinking  into  the  return  line  and  going 
back  to  the  tank  as  fast  as  it  cools.  It  must 
be  understood,  however,  that  this  cooling  in  a 
well  designed  system  amounts  to  only  ten  or 
fifteen  degrees  so  that  even  the  return  water  is 
plenty  hot  enoug'h  for  all  ordinary  use. 

A  graphic  representation  of  a  system  of  this 
kind  is  shown  in  Fig.  96  where  the  circulation 
system  is  used  in  connection  with  a  house  tank. 
The  hot  water  heater  is  located  in  the  basement 
B  and  is  supplied  from  the  house  tank  into 
wihich  the  cold  water  is  pumped  by  a  pump  not 
shown  in  the  sketch.  From  the  hot  water  heater 
the  water  rises  up  thru  the  main  hot  water  riser 
past  the  first,  second  and  third  floors  to  the  roof 
space  above  the  third  floor  ceiling  C  and  below 
the  roof  R. 

At  this  point  (which  is  the  highest  point  of 
the  hot  water  system)  an  air  vent  pipe  is  tapped 
in,  this  being  taken  up  into  the  pent  house  and 
turned  down  over  the  house  tank.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  all  water  when  heated  gives  up 
a  certain  amount  of  air,  ordinarily  contained 
in  all  cold  water),  which  collects  in  bubbles  and 
gradually  works  to  the  highest  point  in  the 
system.  Of  course  when  this  air  accumulates 
in  any  quantity  it  retards  or  stops  entirely  the 
hot  water  circulation. 

The  hot  water  supply  then  runs  horizontally 
in  this  ceiling  space  so  as  to  supply  the  re- 
quired drops  which  are  connected  into  the  hot 
water  return  as  shown.  The  probable  method 
of  running  the  cold  water  supply  with  the  cold 
water  drops  paralleling  the  ones  for  hot  water 
is  also  indicated. 


CI 


62 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


In  Fig.  97  is  shown  the  up-feed  system  in 
which  the  main  hot  water  supply,  instead  of  be- 
ing carried  up  to  the  space  between  C  and  R, 
is  run  in  the  basement  and  feeds  the  hot  water 
supply  risers  from  the  bottom  instead  of  from 
th('  top.  The  hot  water  ascends  in  these  risers 
to  a  point  just  below  the  connection  to  the  third 
floor  fixtures  at  which  point  a  branch  is  tapped 
off  for  the  hot  water  return.     This  line  parallels 


be  eliminated  from  consideration,  especially 
where  large  quantities  of  water  are  to  be  heated. 
The  most  common  method  of  heating  water  is 
by  means  of  a  tank  filled  with  the  required 
amount  of  heating  surface  composed  of  brass 
tubing.  In  this  tubing  the  steaim  is  condensed 
the  same  as  in  an  ordinary  radiator.  In  fact, 
the  brass  tubes  are  nothing  but  pipe  coils  sur- 
rounded by  water  instead  of  air.     A  view  of  a 


Alt'  Vent  - 
'/fot  Water  Supply  Ma/n 


Main  Hot 
Woter  Eiset-i 
-  tfofWatef 
Drops 


3^ 


CM  from 
TonH  to 
H.Ur/feater 


Fig  96. 


the  riser  down  to  the  basement  and  is  connected 
in  the  basement  to  the  hot  water  return  line, 
which  is  carried  back  to  the  heater.  Air  relief 
on  this  system  is  obtained  thru  the  top  fixture 
connections,  the  air  being  drawn  off  with  the 
water  as  fast  as  it  accumulates. 

For  heating  water  several  methods  are  in  use. 
Of  these  coal  and  steam  are  the  cheapest  and 
most  used,  and  gas  is  next.  The  least  common 
is  electricity  which  is  so  expensive  that  it  may 


tank  heater  of  that  description  is  shown  in 
Fig.  98.  It  is  often  desirable,  however,  to  have 
heaters  which  can  be  used  in  the  summer  time 
when  the  main  steam  boilers  are  not  in  service. 
In  a  case  of  this  kind  the  tank  is  installed  as 
before  but  a  hot  water  stove  is  also  arranged  to 
circulate  water  to  and  from  the  tank  just  as 
the  ordinary  kitchen  stove  circulates  water  to 
and  from  the  kitchen  boiler.  This  hot  water 
stove  is  used  when  the  main  boilers  are  out  of 


HOT  WATER  SYSTEMS 


63 


service,  but  it  is  not  used  during  the  winter 
when  steam  is  available.  Exceptions  are  made 
of  course  in  cases  where  the  steam  boilers  are 
overloaded,  and  it  is  advisable  to  conserve  the 
steam  as  much  as  possible  by  using  the  coal 
heater. 

In  cases  of  high  water  pressure,  say  40  lbs. 
or  over,  it  is  not  good  practice  to  install  hot 
water  heaters  (which  are  generally  made  of  cast 
iron)  as  they  are  not  built  to  stand  any  great 
pressure.    In  cases  like  this,  instead  of  the  small 


In  cases  where  showers  are  not  installed,  but 
where  hot  water  is  required  only  in  small  quan- 
tities, for  washing  dishes  and  for  supplying  a 
small  number  of  lavatories,  gas  heaters  are  some- 
times used.  These  gas  heaters  are  automatic  in 
operation  and  are  arranged  to  keep  the  tank  at 
a  certain  temperature.  A  thermostat  in  the  tank 
turns  on  the  gas  (which  ignites  from  a  pilot 
light)  whenever  the  temperature  of  the  water 
falls  below  a  certain  number  of  degrees  and 
turns  off  the  gas  (with  the  exception  of  the  pilot 


Cold  Wafer  J?/\sef 
/fot  ]Vote/'J?/3er 
If  of  hfafer  7?eTi//'r7 


3^ 


Jd^" 


j-HofWoferSapp/Y      1^-^ 


CM  from  Street- 


1 


Fig.  97. 


hot  water  heater,  a  steam  boiler  of  equal  capa- 
city is  installed.  The  steam  and  return  con- 
nections are  then  run  to  the  tank  and  cross 
connected  to  the  supply  and  return  connection 
from  the  building  heating  boilers.  This  results 
in  filling  the  brass  tubes  with  steam  at  all  times, 
the  steam  coming  from  the  small  boiler  during 
the  summer  and  from  the  heating  boilers  dur- 
ing the  winter.  The  plan  avoids  the  use  of  high 
pressure  on  the  cast  iron  boiler.  A  view  of  a 
hot  water  tank  installed  in  one  of  the  newest 
schools,  in  which  both  steam  connections  and 
a  hot  water  stove  are  used,  is  shown  in  Fig.  99. 


light)  whenever  the  desired  temperature  is  again 
reached.  In  many  cases  steam  connections  are 
made  for  winter  service,  especially  when  the 
water  comes  in  very  cold  and  the  gas  heater  is 
instated  for  summer  use  only.  A  view  of  an 
installation  of  this  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  100. 

All  hot  water  heaters  should  be  provided  with 
thermostatic  control  to  prevent  insufficient 
v/arming  and  overheating  of  the  water.  With- 
out the  attention  of  the  janitor,  overheating  is 
apt  to  result  in  boiling  and  the  formation  of 
steam. 

Where  showers  are  installed  special  provision 


64 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


1  ^  , ^ * — » — .u,    **  ■  I  ,,'•«' : • ,  ' 


^/V'- i""j-f>'rY'''''°"^v;v';'"f  v'''r'':''''^''T''  i;\*'  ■•'"•  -' ': 


Fig.  101. 


.'i  ■  -^■■:^;\  v■'c■;.^  !^^:.A^..^:^.^:>?;^ ->--.'^,/.5>'.-- <'•%-'■- '^/-'^'•°.- 


«?    •'',.cs",-'»  '-f»r  .'^■ 


Colc/Wafer^     j 


WW 


>y  .'  ■«>/^'-'  *f  ^\  •''ii  '.' '  ■-".  '' 


Fig.  102. 


=  '.  V   .■°. .  i  /  ■■°  ;•<   a   r.'«,'  ^. "'<'./   ."^/e'/'.  '.°,  ',  ^'>  I-'-^   t'a'.'^:  «..''' i».'-  f,  >,.'0.'  .'/a.'  '-f.'. 


«s   ' ,  _■    '  «  ^  ■ 


.    c      .a 


Tempefed  Wo/e/'L/ne 


E 


dj^-^y  Shoive/'Ifeoc/s 


/-Dfo/f?  Tfoug/7 


i'  •».  •   » '* 


Fig.  103. 


HOT  WATER  SYSTEMS 


65 


should  always  be  made  to  prevent  accidental 
scalding.  This  is  necessary  owing  to  the  fact 
that  hot  water  at  a  satisfactory  temperature  for 
other  uses  is  entirely  too  hot  to  be  used  in  a 
shower.  In  fact,  the  customary  temperature 
for  satisfactory  service  on  sinks,  lavatories  and 
similar  fixtures  is  generally  assumed  to  be  150° 
Fahr.,  while  many  persons  in  a  shower  bath 
(especially  young  children)  cannot  endure  water 
at  more  than  100  degrees. 

It  is,  therefore,  customary  to  install  some 
means  whereby  water  supplied  to  showers  will 
not  be  hotter  than  100°   Fahr.   in  temperature 


no  hot  water  being  supplied  directly  to  the 
showers.  The  cold  water  line  in  addition  to  its 
connection  to  the  regulator,  is  extended  to  and 
connected  with  the  cold  water  side  of  the  show- 
ers. Both  of  these  pipes  are  usually  concealed 
back  of  the  slab  work. 

In  each  shower  stall  is  placed  a  common 
shower  mixing  valve  which — if  of  the  anti- 
scalding  type — opens  the  cold  water  first  and 
then  gradually  closes  the  cold  water  and  opens 
the  tempered  water  line  until  pure  tempered 
water  is  being  delivered  to  the  shower.  Turn- 
ing this  handle  back  across  the  dial  reverses  the 


'HW3 


T 


MB 


^DV 


SH 


-J-55 


Q^ 


\ 


t 


~^hv7r 


Fig.  104. 


and  also  means  whereby  this  temperature  can 
be  reduced  to  plain  cold  water  at  will.  The 
exact  method  of  this  application  depends  con- 
siderably upon  the  character  of  the  shower  in- 
stallations and  the  desired  method  of  operation. 
Where  individual  showers  controlled  entirely 
by  the  pupils  are  used,  the  most  common  as  well 
as  the  safest  way,  is  shown  in  Fig.  101.  Here  a 
thermostatic  hot  water  regulator  supplied  with 
both  hot  and  cold  water  delivers  tempered  water 
(at  100°  Fahr.,  or  thereabouts)  into  a  tempered 
water  line.  This  tempered  water  line  is  con- 
nected to  the  hot  water  side  of  all  the  showers. 


aperation  gradually  shutting  off  the  tempered 
water  and  turning  on  the  cold  water,  until  a 
cold  water  temperature  is  reached,  then  shut- 
ting off  the  cold  water  and  thus  stopping  the 
flow  of  the  shower.  Showers  arranged  in  this 
manner  allow  the  individual  pupil  to  control 
absolutely  the  temperature  of  water  which  he 
is  using  up  to  100°  (or  other  temperature  for 
which  the  regulator  is  set)  and  down  as  low  as 
the  temperature  of  the  cold  water  will  permit. 
This  scheme  automatically  keeps  the  showers 
shut  off  in  stalls  that  are  not  in  use,  thus  pre- 
venting the  waste  of  water. 


06 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


In  cases  where  yoiinf?  pupils  use  the  showers 
it    is    often    desirable    to    have    the    instructor, 


rather  than  the  pupil,  control  the  water  tempera- 
ti^re.  To  make  such  a  control  possible  an 
arrangement  as  shown  in  Fig.  102  is  sometimes 
used.  In  this  scheme  the  hot  and  cold  water 
is  carried  to  a  regulator  like  the  one  described 
above.  No  mixing  valves  are  placed  on  the 
showers  and  no  cold  water  connections  are  made 
to  the  showers;  the  shower  heads  are  supplied 
solely  from  the  tempered  water  line.  In  this 
arrangement  the  instructor  standing  at  the  reg- 
ulator,  can,   by   watching   the    thermometer    T, 


^- wm 

1 

t^v 

■'  -AC   \ 

•*         .^^1'''                  '^'''^^'W^fe^-^^MB''''"'*'^^^^"'"^- 

h 

Fig  99. 


Fig.  100. 

deliver  water  into  the  showers  at  any  tempera- 
ture from  100°  down  to  the  temperature  of  the 
cold  water  suppV-  The  regulator  will  prevent 
scalding  by  not  supplying  water  above  the 
proper  temperature.  In  case  the  regulator  fails 
to  operate  properly  at  any  time,  manipulation 
of  the  valves  on  the  bypass  and  close  attention 
to  the  temperature  registered  on  the  thermom- 
eter T  will  allow  temporary  service  until  repairs 
can  be  made.  The  chain  pulls  shown  in  the 
showers  are  connected  to  spring  valves  which 
automatically    close    whenever    the    chains    are 


HOT  WATER  SYSTEMS 


67 


released.  These  are  installed  to  prevent  water 
waste. 

In  Fig.  103  is  shown  the  common  type  of  gang 
shower  in  which  heads  are  located  on  the  ceiling 
and  the  whole  group  is  operated  as  a  unit.  In 
cases  of  this  kind  the  number  of  heads  is  usually- 
made  sufficient  to  take  care  of  an  entire  class 
or  subdivision  of  a  class  so  that  the  chances  of 
not  having  a  pupil  under  every  head  are  small. 
Of  course  chain  pulls  and  spring  valves  can 
bo  installed  on  the  heads,  but  it  is  usually  a 
problem  to  make  the  chains  long  enough  to  be 
reached  by  the  smallest  without  making  them 
so  long  as  to  strike  the  heads  of  the  tallest 
pupils. 

The  hot  and  cold  water  comes  in  as  before  and 
goes  to  a  regulator  of  different  type  from  those 
previously  shown.  All  water  is  delivered  to  the 
tempered  water  line  by  the  regulator  at  any 
temperature  desired.  The  water  flow  is  con- 
trolled by  the  instructor  who  stands  at  the  reg- 
ulator and  turns  on  the  valve.  As  this  regula- 
tor is  practically  fixed  after  being  once  set  for 
a  given  temperature,  a  cold  water  bypass  as 
previously  illustrated  is  necessary  to  reduce  the 
temperature  below  100°  when  desired. 


In  some  buildings  it  is  impossible  to  get  hot 
water  circulation  by  gravity.  This  happens 
when  two  separate  sections  are  so  built  that  the 
only  connection  is  a  tunnel  or  other  passage 
below  the  level  of  the  hot  water  tank.  This  is 
quite  likely  to  happen  where  a  central  plant  is 
used  to  heat  and  light  a  group  of  school 
buildings. 

Where  such  a  contingency  arises,  circulation 
must  be  forced  by  means  of  a  pump  arranged 
somewhat  as  shown  in  Fig.  104.  Here  hot  water 
is  supplied  to  a  building  from  the  storage  tank 
T  thru  the  hot  water  supply  pipe,  IIWS,  re- 
turning from  the  boiilding  thru  the  hot  water 
return  line,  ITWR,  to  the  circulation  pump,  CP, 
which  forces  the  water  to  circulate.  The  tank 
is  provided  with  a  relief  valve,  RV,  a  mud 
blowoff,  MB,  and  a  thermostat  TT,  with  a 
waste  W. 

The  water  is  heated  by  the  steam  heater,  SH, 
having  a  steam  supply,  SS,  and  a  drip,  D.  This 
steam  supply  is  governed  by  the  diaphragm 
valve  DV,  operated  by  the  thermostat,  and  cir- 
culation between  the  heater  and  tank  is  main- 
tained by  gravity  thru  the  check  valve  C.  The 
cold  water  supply  enters  at  CW. 


CHAPTER  XI 


Fire  Protection 


Every  time  we  pick  up  a  newspaper  and  read 
of  a  school  fire,  with  the  occasional  accompany- 
ing casualties,  we  instinctively  shudder.  Death 
by  fire  is  indeed  horrible,  but  the  slaughter  of 
thf  innocent  seems  doubly  so.  The  number  of 
school  children  today  housed  in  buildings  with- 
out proper  fire  protection  is  a  very  high  per- 
centage of  the  total;  and  a  thoro  fire  drill  sys- 
tematically carried  out  is  no  assurance  of  safety 
in  case  of  actual  need.  Roughly  speaking, 
school  buildings  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  those  strictly  fireproof  thruout,  those 
with  fireproof ed  walls  and  stairways  and  with 
slow  burning  construction  otherwise,  those  of 
slow  burning  construction  thruout  and  the 
common  frame  school. 

All  buildings  need  fire  protection,  even  those 
which  are  fireproof.  You  can  take  an  iron  oven, 
fill  it  with  excelsior,  touch  a  match  to  it  and — 
well,  the  oven  is  fireproof,  but  what  chance 
would  a  human  being  have  in  it?  A  fire  is  not 
so  likely  to  start  in  a  fireproof  building,  it  is 
less  likely  to  spread  to  other  rooms,  hut  the 
interior  of  any  building,  together  with  its  furni- 
ture, desks,  equipment  and  combustibles,  can  be 
and  often  is  burned.  This  must  be  guarded 
against. 

The  most  common  method  of  school  fire  pro- 
tection is  the  installation  of  a  system  of  stand- 
pipes  with  hose  outlets  and  hose  at  each  floor 
leAel  and  with  one  or  more  Siamese  outlets  at 
tlie  building  wall  for  the  connection  of  the  fire 
engine  upon  its  arrival.  Like  a  great  many 
other  things  in  common  practice,  the  school  fire 
hose  is  rather  contradictory.  In  the  first  place, 
many  schools  have  among  their  occupants  only 
two  adult  male  employes — the  janitor  and  the 
principal — and  even  this  number  is  reduced  in 
some  cases.  If  a  2y2-inch  hose  is  installed 
(which  is  the  customary  size)  there  is  little 
likelihood  of  either  of  these  two  men  being 
present  exactly  at  the  very  time  and  place  to 
operate  the  hose  when  needed.  Under  ordinary 
pressure  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  a  woman 
to  direct  the  stream  from  a  hose  of  this  size, 
in  fact  (under  high  pressure)  it  often  requires 
two  or  more  firemen  who  are  experts  and  thoroly 


familiar  with  the  handling  of  hose  to  properly 
control  and  direct  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  small  size  hose  is 
installed  (usually  II/2  inches  in  diameter)  it  is 
hardly  large  enough  to  be  effective  in  case  a  fire 
of  any  magnitude  develops,  as  this  hose  is  only 
slight-y  larger  than  a  common  garden  hose. 
Moreover,  a  l^^-inch  thread  will  not  fit  the  fire 
department's  standard  hose,  so  that,  in  case  of 
fire  on  the  second  or  third  floor,  the  firemen 
must,  at  a  great  loss  in  time,  run  their  hose 
up  from  the  ground  level  to  get  any  quantity 
of  water  at  the  point  required. 

Everyone  who  has  made  a  study  of  the  origin 
of  fires  and  the  damage  resulting  from  the 
same  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
time  to  fight  a  fire  is  in  its  incipient  stages — 
not  after  a  conflagration  has  developed.  Pre- 
vention is  a  thousand  times  better  than  cure! 
Operated  under  the  above  disadvantages,  how, 
then,  can  we  be  assured  that  the  installation  of 
fire  hose  will  protect  our  building  and  the 
pupils  ? 

This  naturally  leads  to  the  question.  If  not 
fire  hose — what?  The  answer  to  this  is  some- 
thing which,  up  to  the  present  time,  has  been  a 
considerable  innovation  in  a  school — namely, 
the  automatic  sprinkler  system. 

A  system  of  this  sort  is  being  commonly  in- 
stalled in  every  modern  building,  be  it  for 
department  store,  office  or  manufacturing  pur- 
poses. But,  strange  to  say,  the  sprinkler  system 
has  seldom  been  employed  in  schools.  Appar- 
ently children  are  not  considered  so  valuable  as 
merchandise,  for  the  only  objection  that  can  be 
urged  against  the  sprinkler  system  is  its  cost. 
Yet  in  many  purely  commercial  cases  the  inter- 
est on  the  initial  investment  has  been  more  than 
offset  by  the  saving  in  insurance  premiums, 
making  it  (even  under  the  worst  possible  condi- 
tions) not  as  expensive  as  it  would  at  first 
seem. 

Briefly  the  automatic  sprinkler  system  is 
nothing  but  a  series  of  cold  water  pipes  under 
pressure  with  heads  located  in  the  proportion  of 
one  to  about  100  sq.  ft.  of  floor  area.  The  heads 
are  plugged  with  a  fusible  metal  which  melts  as 


68 


FIRE  PROTECTION 


69 


scon  as  the  temperature  rises  to  an  abnormal 
degree.  This  temperature  varies  in  different 
types  of  heads  from  300  to  600  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. To  obtain  the  rough  cost  of  installing  a 
system  in  a  school  building  the  total  area  in 
square  feet  of  all  the  floors  should  be  added  to- 
gether and  divided  by  100  to  give  the  a.pproxi- 
mate  number  of  outlets  required.  The  system 
will  cost  somewhere  between  six  and  ten  dollars 
a  head,  the  average  being  about  eight  dollars. 
A  view  of  a  sprinkler  system  for  a  typical  class- 
re  cm  CR  and  wardrobe  W  is  shown  in  Fig.  105, 


L 


w 


\\ 


clf 


HOt  0  lO 


CR 

-O  Oi  O  II 


Ji? 


O*  *(3^ 


■oi  en  I 


<^ 


'If  3 

— O  O  lOl  lOt— t 


^ 


C 


Fig.  105. 

where  a  main  M  in  the  corridor  C  supplies  the 
sprinkler  heads  H  thru  the  branches  B. 

A  sprinkler  system  properly  installed  consti- 
tutes a  perpetual  safeguard  against  fires,  day 
or  night,  watchman  or  no  watchman.  In  case 
a  fire  starts,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  wait  for 
the  nearest  head  to  open  up.  Within  five  min- 
utes after  the  opening  of  the  head,  either  the 
fire  is  out  or  it  has  burned  enough  to  open  an 
increased  number  of  heads  by  a  continuation  of 
the  heat.  This  will  result  in  such  an  increase 
in  the  amount  of  water  as  to  make  the  further 
progress  of  the  fire  impossible.  Valves  located 
so  as  to  control  each  floor,  or  portion  of  a  floor, 
are  then  shut  off  and  the  flow  is  stopped.     The 


insertion  of  a  new  head  and  the  re-opening  of 
the  valves  brings  the  protection  again  into  serv- 
ice with  its  original  efficiency. 

For  school  boards  who  feel  that  a  sprinkler 
system  is  entirely  too  much  of  an  innovation 
to  thrust  upon  their  local  communities,  I  would 
recommend  the  use  of  the  standard  standpipe 
system  with  the  pipes  arranged  so  that  the 
farthest  portion  of  the  building  is  not  more 
than  75  ft.  distant  from  the  nearest  hose  outlet. 
Allowing  50  ft.  of  hose  and  25  ft.  length  of 
stream,  this  will  bring  the  extreme  parts  of  the 


'/-'.'Xv^v*; 


EtS 


Fig.  106. 


building  within  reach.  The  standpipes  will 
probably  figure  out  about  100  ft.  apart,  owing 
to  the  distance  lost  in  going  around  corners. 
In  an  auditorium  it  is  customary  to  place  a 
standpipe  somewhere  near  the  rear  so  that  a 
hose  can  be  run  in  thru  the  entrance  and  serve 
the  back  part  of  the  auditorium  while  another 
stt;ndpipe  near  the  front,  or  in  the  rooms  baclv 
of  the  stage,  takes  care  of  the  stage  and  front 
portion. 

The  Siamese  outlets  are  generally  made  two 
in  number,  so  as  to  make  connection  to  these 
outlets  possible  even  should  one  be  made  in- 
accessible by  a  fire  located  in  the  basement 
close  to  the  outlet. 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  107. 

Fig.  106  shows  a  typical  standpipe  installa- 
tion with  the  fire  hose  located  in  the  corridors  C 
just  outside  of  the  classrooms  CR.  This  sys- 
tem is  fed  by  the  fire  pump  shown  or  by  a  city 
water  connection  until  the  arrival  of  the  regular 
fire  apparatus.  The  fire  engines  may  couple 
their  hose  to  the  Siamese  connection  S  and  feed 
into  the  standpipe  system  thru  the  check  valve 
CK,  which  allows  water  to  pass  inward  but  not 
outward.  The  standpipes,  as  many  in  number 
as  required,  are  connected  to  the  water  main  in 
the  basement  corridor. 

It  is  customary  in  some  schools  to  put  the 
hose  valve  and  hose  rack  in  a  recessed  wall  case 


Fig.  108. 

with  a  bronze  frame  and  plate  glass  cover  as 
shown  in  Fig.  107.  This,  however,  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  good  practice  as  the  plain  expos- 
ure of  the  ho!^c  and  valve,  preferably  in  a  cor- 
ridor near  tiie  top  of  the  main  stairways.  By 
the  latter  plan,  everyone  who  is  a  regular  occu- 
pimt  of  the  building  must  become  aware  of  the 
position  of  the  hose  without  any  particular  in- 
struction. While  it  might  be  supposed  that 
hose  exposed  in  this  manner  would  be  subject 
to  tampering  by  the  pupils,  strange  to  say  this 
does  not  seem  to  be  the  case. 

The  fact  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  the 
standpipe  from  its  very  character  is  intended  for 
the  use  of  the  fire  department.  This  is  indi- 
cated, first,  by  the  Siamese  connection  intended 
for  coupling  on  fire  engines  to  supply  water; 
second,  by  the  common  use  of  2V2-inch  hose 
with    thread    to    match    the    fire    department's 


FIRE  PROTECTION 


71 


standard;  third,  by  the  usual  lack  of  anyone  in 
the  building  capable  of  controlling  and  operat- 
ing such  a  hose  in  case  of  need,  and  last,  by 
the  fact  that  at  the  beginning  of  a  fire  a  hose 
is  not  required,  oftentimes  doing  more  damage 
than  good. 

In  either  a  sprinkler  or  a  standpipe  system  it 
is  desirable  to  provide  some  source  of  supply  in 
addition  to  the  general  water  system.  The  more 
sources,  the  less  the  chance  of  failure.  A  grav- 
ity tank  (that  is  to  say  a  roof  tank  or  a  tanlt 
on  an  elevated  tower  from  which  the  water  will 
flow  by  gravity  into  the  fire  system)  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  surest  sources  of  supply,  because 
it  does  not  depend  upon  any  mechanical  device 
to  produce  the  flow  of  water,  and  the  failure  of 
power  does  not  affect  it.  Still  a  supply  of  this 
sort  is  not  by  any  means  infallible.  The  tanlc 
niay  freeze;  the  valve  in  the  supply  from  the 
tank  may  be  closed  accidentally;  something 
may  get  into  the  tank  and  stop  the  outlet;  or 
thc'  tank  may  become  dry  thru  accident  or  over- 
sight. 

When  a  gravity  tank  is  available  it  is  gener- 
ally considered  sufficient  to  cross-connect  the 
standpipe  supply  to  the  water  supply  for  the 
building,  assuming  that  the  pressure  on  the 
water  supply  is  sufficient  to  operate  the  hose. 
If  a  gravity  tank  is  not  available  it  is  custom- 
ary to  furnish  two  other  sources  of  supply.  One 
of  the  most  satisfactory  is  the  pneumatic  sys- 
tem simiilar  to  that  described  for  a  pneum'atic 


Fig.  111. 


Fig.  no. 


v/ater  supply  with  a  tank  large  enough  to  dis- 
diarge  about  3,000  gallons  of  water  before  fail- 
ure. A  second  good  source  is  a  pump  driven  by 
an  electric  motor,  steam  or  gas  engine,  which 
v.dll  keep  up  a  continuous  supply  after  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  tank. 

It  is  well  to  provide  this  pump  with  a  suction 
reservoir  so  that,  in  case  the  water  supply  to  the 
building  fails,  the  fight  against  the  fire  can 
still  be  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  the  fire  pump 
and  the  standpipe.  A  steam  driven  fire  pump 
will  not  be  satisfactory  in  a  school  where  high 
pressure  steam  is  not  available  at  all  times 
botli  day  and  night.  A  gas  engine  cannot  be 
regarded  as  equal  to  an  electric  motor  in  relia- 
bility. On  the  other  hand,  an  electric  metor  is 
usually  dependent  on  current  from  an  outside 
wiring  system  which  can  never  be  guaranteed 
to  supply  current  without  danger  of  failure  at 
a  crucial  time.  It  is  only  by  a  combination  of 
two  or  more  sources  of  supply  that  the  chance 
of  not  having  water  when  the  time  of  need 
ccmes  is  made  so  small  that  it  can  be  safely 
neglected. 

In  general,  fire  pumps  are  electrically  driven, 
especially  in  the  newer  installations.  An  ap- 
proved Underwriters'  pump  of  the  motor-driven 
centrifugal  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  108,  and  a 
rotary  pump  used  for  a  similar  purpose  is  shown 
in  Fig.  109.  It  will  be  noted  that  both  of  these 
are  direct  connected,  i.e.,  the  shaft  of  the  motor 
is  coupled  directly  to  the  shaft  of  the  pump 
without  the  use  of  gears,  belts  or  other  inter- 
vening devices. 

For  the  use  of  the  occupants  of  the  building 
in  the  early  stages  of  a  fire,  fire  extinguishers 
aro  by  all  means  the  most  satisfactory.  These 
may  be  the  regular  chemical  extinguishers, 
shov5Ti  in  elevation  and  cross-section  in  Fig.  110, 
or  they  may  be  small  hand  extinguishers.  Either 
could  be  used  effectively  by  a  woman  or  even 
by  a  twelve  year  old  child.  These  extinguishers 
are  usually  installed  on  a  basis  of  one  to  every 
1.000  sq.  ft.  of  floor  area,  which  means  prac- 
tically one  to  a  classroom.  This  is  on  the  basis 
of  the  Underwriters'  requirements,  but  it  would 
seem  entirely  practicable  considering  the  divi- 
sion   of   schools    into    classrooms    to   place    one 


72 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


extingnisher  in  the  corridor  between  every  two 
classrooms. 

The  commonly  termed  "chemical  extinguish- 
ec,"  shown  in  Fig.  110,  consists  of  a  copper  shell 
partially  filled  with  a  mixture  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda  and  water.  The  top  is  formed  by  a 
screw  plug,  which  is  turned  by  the  wheel  to 
which  it  is  attached.  On  the  bottom  of  the 
plug  is  a  basket  in  which  is  set  a  glass  bottle  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Tipping  the  extinguisher  causes 
the  acid  to  flow  slowly  out  thru  the  neck  of 
the  bottle  and  to  mix  with  the  soda  and  water, 
forming  a  gas.  The  resulting  pressure  drives 
the  contents  of  the  extinguisher  out  thru  the 
flexible  rubber  tube  on  the  side  of  the  apparatus. 

To  operate  the  extinguisher  it  must  be  in- 
verted and  held  in  this  position  while  the 
stream  from  the  tube  is  directed  on  the  fire. 
These  extinguishers  cost  about  seven  dollars 
•apiece  and  are,  perhaps,  the  most  common  form 
of  hand  extinguishers. 

Another  very  good  type  of  chemical  extin- 
guisher is  shown  in  Fig.  111.    This  extinguisher 


is  only  3  inches  in  diameter  and  about  14  inches 
long  and  the  total  weight  is  only  6  pounds.  It 
is  primarily  a  hand  pump  filled  with  a  special 
chemical  which  is  of  a  peculiar  nature.  Some- 
what like  quicksilver,  it  can  be  squirted  onto 
the  fire  by  manipulation  of  the  pump  handle, 
but  it  does  not  wet,  stain  or  injure  anything  it 
strikes.  It  is  without  doubt  the  least  damaging 
of  all  chemical  extinguishers. 

Modem  development  has  placed  one  danger 
in  the  way  of  extinguishing  fires — the  electric 
current.  Any  hose  or  other  means  used  to 
direct  a  stream  of  water  in  an  electric  fire  is 
liable  to  have  the  current  follow  up  the  stream 
and  shock  the  operator.  This  danger  is  present 
with  all  means  of  putting  out  fire  excepting 
chemical  in  powder  form,  sand  in  pails,  or  the 
special  extinguisher  shown  in  Fig.  111.  The 
chemical  used  there  is  a  non-conductor  and 
vaporizes  into  a  gas  as  soon  as  it  strikes  a  fire. 
These  smaller  extinguishers,  while  costing  ahout 
the  same  as  the  larger  ones,  have  a  more  ex- 
tended use,  not  only  for  electric  fires  but  for 
gasoline,  oil,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XII 


Drinking  Water 


One  of  the  peculiarities  of  unequal  develop- 
ment in  modem  school  sanitation  is  the  progress 
made  in  some  directions  and  the  lack  of  progress 
painfully  apparent  in  others.  It  would  seem  to 
one  that  cool  drinking  water  which  has  been 
properly  filtered  and  sterilized  would  indeed  be 
one  of  the  first  requisites  of  a  truly  modern 
school.  Still  building  after  building  is  con- 
structed without  carrying  the  matter  beyond  the 
point  of  providing  some  very  nice  drinking 
fountains  of  the  latest  design,  carefully  con- 
nected up  to  the  same  cold  water  used  to  supply 
the  lavatories  and  to  flush  the  water  closets. 
Doubtless  some  of  this  seeming  inconsistency 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  schools'  are  in  general 
use  during  the  cooler  months  only.  Still  the 
sessions  often  extend  past  the  first  of  July  and 
open  early  in  Sei3tember. 

In  most  communities  drinking  water  from  a 
street  main  or  driven  well  will  be  cool  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  In  homes  and  other  small  build- 
ings, it  will  be  satisfactory.  In  larger  buildings, 
however,  where  the  supply  must  be  carried  in 
pipes  a  distance,  'thru  the  basement  and  up 
risers  to  the  second  and  third  stories,  the  water 
becomes  thoroly  warmed  in  transit.  It  has  prac- 
tically the  temperature  of  the  building  and  when 
it  reaches  the  fountain  outlets,  has  a  disagree- 
ably insipid,  flat  taste. 

The  newer  office  buiMings,  department  stores 
and  all  new  post  office  buildings  of  any  size  rec- 


ognize the  necessity  of  cooled  drinking  water 
and  are  providing  it.  This  provision  assumes 
a  simple  character  in  the  post  office  buildings 
(where  greater  economies  in  equipment  are  prac- 
ticed than  the  average  taxpayer  is  aware  of) 
and  grows  more  complex  as  the  number  of  out- 
lets, ice  boxes  and  ice  making  requirements 
multiply. 

The  simplest  form  of  water  cooling  consists 
of  the  common  water  cooler  tank  in  which  ice  is 
melted  in  the  tank  to  produce  the  desired  lower 
temperature.  This  is  not  suitable  for  school 
use  because  the  purity  of  the  water  becomes 
dependent  on  the  purity  of  the  ice.  It  makes 
necessary  the  objectionable  practice  of  hauling 
ice  constantly  thru  the  building  to  supply  each 
and  every  tank. 

As  an  improvement  over  this  there  is  the  tank 
which  forms  merely  a  receptacle  for  cracked  ice 
and  its  melted  water,  together  with  a  pipe  coil 
thru  which  the  drinking  water  passes  on  its  way 
to  the  faucet.  The  receiving  end  of  this  coil  is 
connected  to  the  cold  water  supply  line  and  the 
discharge  end  is  brought  thru  the  side  of  the 
tank  and  connected  to  the  faucet.  As  the  water 
passing  thru  the  pipe  coil  is  never  in  direct 
contact  with  the  ice,  and  is  cooled  only  by  the 
transfer  of  heat  from  the  drinking  water  to  the 
water  from  the  melted  ice  during  its  passage 
thru  the  coil,  the  temperature  of  the  water  re- 
ceived is  liable  to  be  much  more  modified  than 


Y*  i>' 


74 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


^■^    A 


Fig.  113. 

in  the  cose  where  ice  is  melted  directly  in  the 
w  ater. 

In  such  a  tank,  dirty  or  impure  ice  may  be 
used  with  impunity  as  there  is  no  connection 
between  the  water  in  the  coil  and  the  water  from 
the  ice  in  the  tank.  The  modified  temperature 
is.  Off  course,  an  advantage  as  water  has  been 
found  to  be  most  desirable  for  drinking  pur- 
pcses  when  about  50°  F.  This  scheme,  how- 
ever, is  not  des'iraWe  for  schools  as  there  is  still 
the  necessity  of  carting  ice  thru  the  building, 
while  the  coil  is  so  small  that  it  does  not  con- 
tain any  reserve  supply  of  cold  water  for  a  rush 
demand  such  as  is  likely  to  occur  at  a  recess  or 
lunch  period. 

If,  however,  all  the  drinking  fountains  are 
placed  in  the  same  relative  position  on  each 
floor  a  small  water  pipe  carried  directly  down  to 
thf;  basement  from  each  group  of  fountains  can 
be  connected  to  a  large  coil  of  sufficient  storage 
capacity  for  overload  periods  to  properly  meet 
the  requirements. 

A  tank  suitable  for  this  type  of  installation 
is  shown  in  Fig.  112  where  the  ice  I  floats  in 
the  melted  ice  water  which  is  kept  at  a  constant 
water  line  WL  by  the  overflow  O.  The  water  to 
be  cooled  eniters  the  coil  C  thru  the  upper  pipe 
S  and  leaves  thru  the  lower  one  as  indicate^d  by 
the  arrows.  The  coil  is  contained  in  a  tank 
built  of  two  layers  of  |  in.  wood  W,  with  paper 
P  between,  and  has  an  interior  lining  L  of  gal- 
vanized iron  or  copper.  It  is  set  in  a  drip  pan 
DP,  which  has  a  drain  D,  and  the  water  to  and 
from  the  tank  is  controlled  by  the  two  valves  V. 
Of  course  the  size  of  the  pipe  and  the  number 


of  loops  installed  determine  the  s-torage  capacity 
of  cold  water.  After  leaving  this  tank  the 
water  pipe  is  run  directly  up  to  the  drinking 
water  fountains. 

This  is  also  the  scheme  used  in  the  United 
States  Post  OfiSce  Buildings  except  that  the  box 
in  government  buildings  is  slightly  more  elab- 
orate in  construction.  The  government  boxes 
are  built  as  shown  in  the  detail.  Fig.  113,  in 
which  A  is  §  by  2  in.  beaded  and  matched  lumber 
and  B  is  finely  packed  granulated  cork.  C  is  a 
No.  26  gauge  galvanized  iron  lining  which  cov- 
ers boith  the  interior  of  the  itank  E  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cover  D,  with  soldered  joints.  The 
cover  is  hung  with  iron  hinges  and  is  provided 
with  a  lifting  handle.  The  box  is  set  on  a 
yellow  pine  frame  which  lifts  it  6  in.  above  the 
floor.  It  contains  about  50  ft.  of  |  in.  block 
tin  pipe  which  is  made  continuous  and  without 
fittings  inside  the  tank. 

To  operate  all  drinking  water  from  a  central 
point  some  form  of  refrigeration  and  water  cir- 
culation is  required.  For  small  insitallations  in 
which  simplicity  and  fool  proof  mechanism  are 
desired,  there  is  a  patented  machine  known  as 
the  Audiffren-Singrun,  which  uses  sulphur  diox- 
ide as  its  refrigeration  agent.  This  consists  of 
a  shaft  upon  which  are  mounted  two  sealed 
chambers  in  which  the  refrigeration  agent  is 
compressed  and  expanded.  By  operating  the 
expansion  chamber  in  the  water  to  be  cooled  the 
desired  refrigerating  effect  is  obtained,  and 
there  is  no  possibility  of  leakage  of  ammonia 
fumes  or  other  troubles  from  which  larger  plants 
sometimes  suffer.  The  machine  is  sealed  in  the 
factory  and  is  operated  by  an  electric  motor  and 
a  supply  of  cooling  water.  It  should  be  under- 
stood that  the  heat  absorbed  by  the  cooling 
water  is  approximately  the  amount  of  cooling 
effect  obtained  in  the  drinking  water  and  that 
the  whole  process  of  refrigeration  consists  sim- 
ply of  the  transfer  of  the  heat  from  the  drink- 
ing water  to  the  cooling  water  (which  often  gets 
quite  hot)  thru  the  medium  of  the  refrigeration 
agent  used.  All  power  which  is  consumed  is 
consumed  by  this  process  of  heat  transfer. 

Probably  three-quarters  of  the  refrigeration 
systems  installed  are  of  the  ammonia  type,  that 
is  to  say,  ammonia  is  used  as  the  refrigerating 
medium.  This  is  the  case  in  the  West  Phila- 
delphia High  School  in  which  a  modem  refrig- 
eration plant  is  installed.  In  tjhis  school  drink- 
ing fountains  are  placed  in  the  corridors,  in  the 


DRINKING  WATER 


75 


basement,  near  the  pupdls'  lunchrooms,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  shower  bathroom  and  in  the  cor- 
ridors of  all  floors  of  both  wings.  The  cooling 
plant  is  placed  in  the  basement  and  consists  of 
an  ammonia  compressor  driven  by  a  25  H.  P. 
motor,  a  cooling  tank  3  ft.  by  6  ft.  by  12  ft. 
long,  an  ammonia  condenser,  an  ammonia  re- 
ceiver, an  oil  separator,  and  a  pump  to  circu- 
late the  water  to  the  fountaiins  and  back  again. 
A  plan  of  this  equipment  is  shown  in  Fig.  114, 
which  is  self-explanatory. 

The  cooling  tank  is  of  ^  in.  steel  set  on  a 
concrete  foundation  with  two  layers  of  2  in. 
oork  ibeneath.  The  tank  itself  is  insulated  on 
the  sides  by  cork  about  10  in.  thick,  sheathed 
with  two  thicknesses  of  1  in.  pine  and  four-ply 
tar  paper.  The  coil  in  the  tank  in  this  case 
contains  ammonia,  the  expansion  of  which  pro- 
duces an  intense  cold,  thus  cooling  the  water  in 
the  tank.  The  coil  is  of  2  in.  extra  heavy  am- 
monia pipe  and  has  a  capacity  of  cooling  1,600 
gallons  of  water  from  70  degrees  to  40  degrees 
in  five  hours. 


The  process  in  this  plant  consists  of  com- 
pressing the  ammonia  gas  to  a  high  pressure  in 
the  ammonia  compressor,  the  compressor  dis- 
charging into  the  pipe  marked  "Ammonia  Dis- 
charge" on  the  plan.  The  ammonia  gas  which 
is  la*  a  high  temperature  owing  to  its  compres- 
sion, is  then  passed  thru  the  oil  interceptor  from 
which  it  is  carried  down  to  the  condenser.  The 
condenser  consists  of  double  pipes,  the  inside 
pipes  being  1^  in.  and  the  outside  pipe  2  in. 
in  diameter.  One  pipe  contains  the  ammonia 
and  the  other  pipe  cold  water  obtained  from  the 
city  mains.  The  cooling  of  the  gas  passing  thru 
this  condenser  results  in  its  liquefaction.  After 
liquefying,  the  gas  is  collected  in  the  receiver. 
The  liquid  gas  is  now  of  ordinary  temperature 
but  lat  a  very  high  pressure.  From  the  receiver 
it  passes  thru  the  line  marked  "Ammonia  to 
Tank  Coils"  to  tilie  "Expansion  Valve."  This 
valve  allows  the  liquid  to  pass  from  the  high 
pressure  of  the  receiver  into  the  low  pressure 
of  the  cooling  coil.  This  results  in  the  am- 
monia vaporizing  and  absorbing  a  large  amount 


Fig.  114 


76 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


P^ig.  116. 

of  heat,  this  heat  being  taken  from  the  water  in 
the  cooling  tank.     The  gas  in  the  coil  is  then 


drawn  thru  the  ammonia  suction  pipe  back  into 
the  compressor  and  recompressed  ready  for  a 
second  round  of  the  cycle. 

This  is  the  ammonia  system  from  which  the 
drinking  water  circulation  is  entirely  separate, 
the  only  connection  between  the  two  being  in 
the  cooling  tank  where  the  expansion  coil  is  im- 
mersed in  the  drinking  water.  The  warm  water 
coming  back  from  the  building  is  carried  thru 
a  hack  pressure  valve  BPV,  which  prevents  the 
water  from  running  out  of  the  system  into  the 
cooling  tank.  After  passing  thru  the  back  pres- 
sure valve  it  enters  the  cooling  tank  where  the 
water  level  is  maintained  by  an  automatic  de- 
vice which  sup]>lies  make-up  water  to  replace 
tl>at  drawn  off  in  the  building.  In  the  cooling 
tank  the  water  is  brought  into  contact  with  the 
cooling  coil  and  chilled  to  the  desired  tempera- 
ture. The  coldest  water  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  tank  from  which  it  is  drawn  off  thru  the 
suction  pipe  to  the  circulation  pump  and  dis- 
charged into  the  line  supplying  the  building. 

The  drinking  water  in  a  system  of  this  kind 
and,  in  fact,  in  the  previous  system  where  sul- 
phur dioxide  is  used,  must  be  circulated  by  a 
circulation  pump  so  as  to  flow  as  continuously 


■Em 


1 


i 


=^=^ 


3^Z'Z-7 


A 


w 


% 


;g^/^Z7 


r 


/^rz^Z.7 


1 


nzrz-zrzuz?' 


TV! 


JBJLSZr.  7 


5 


y- 


■r 


Fig.  115. 


DRINKING  WATER 


77 


as  possiWe  to  the  various  outlets.  The  outlets 
must  be  placed  as  near  the  circulating  main  as 
possible  'to  avoid  dead  water  in  the  pipe  between 
the  faucet  or  bubbler  and  the  circulating  main, 
and  to  avoid  wastage  in  drawing  this  dead  water 
off. 

In  Fig.  115  we  have  a  typical  system  of  this 
kind  installed  in  a  three  story  school  supplying 
eight  fountains  F  and  circulating  thru  the 
piping  in  the  directions  indicated  by  the  arrows. 
The  return  pipe  coming  back  from  the  system 
is  united  with  the  cold  water  make-up  C  from 
which  the  water  enters  the  pump  P  and  is  then 
discharged  thru  the  cooling  tank  T  and  then 
thru  the  pipe  circuit  as  shown.  E.V  is  a  relief 
valve  to  allow  for  expansion  in  case  the  system 
should  be  stopped  and  the  water  allowed-  to 
warm  up.  In  the  warming  process  there  would 
be  a  certain  amount  of  expansion  that  would 
exert  great  pressure  if  not  properly  relieved. 

The  fountains  shown  in  Fig.  115  are  what  is 
known  as  the  pedestal  type  and  may  be  located 
upon  the  floor  at  any  convenient  point.  An- 
other very  popular  type  of  fountain  for  school 
work  is  shown  in  Fig.  116.  This  fountain  is 
operated  by  what  is  known  as  the  pedal  control 
consisting  of  a  valve  in  the  floor  box  which  is 
operated  by  stepping  on  a  ball  projecting  about 
J  inch  above  the  box.  It  is  obvious  that  this 
type  of  fountain  can  be  used  only  on  a  vertical 


\?JS  V,'   «*-'-Q- 


<'„ 


■  ■JO  ■*?  a  . 


Fig.  117, 

wall.  Both  the  pedestal  and  the  wall  type  may 
be  operated  from  the  floor  or  by  means  of  a 
spring  valve  handle  in  the  side.  In  cases  where 
one  fountain  is  not  sufficient  to  avoid  undue  ex- 
pense the  receptor  type  is  generally  used.  A 
typical  fountain  of  this  type  is  shown  in  Fig. 
117.  It  consists  simply  of  a  supply  pipe  run- 
ning to  bubblers  which  are  opened  by  jwessing 
down  the  hand  wheel  around  the  bubbler.  The 
water  from  these  outlets  is  caught  in  the  re- 
ceptor which  has  a  trap  to  the  wall  and  resem- 
bles a  common  sink  in  every  respect  except  the 
faucets. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


Sewage  Disposal 


The  subject  of  sewage  disposal  for  schools 
located  in  unsewered  districts  is  one  which  often 
causes  consideraible  anxiety  to  school  boards. 
Generally  the  trouble  is  accompanied  by  a  larger 
or  smaller  amount  of  expense  which  may,  or 
may  not,  be  necessary.  A  great  deal  of  the 
trouble  and  considerable  expense  can  be  spared 
by  selecting  a  location  where  the  slope  of  the 
?ite  and  character  of  soil  are  suitable  for  a  small 
disposal  plant.  In  fact,  it  can  be  proven  that  in 
certain  cases  the  ground  may  be  so  unsuited  for 
sewage  disposal  as  to  make  the  purchase  of  a 
more  expensive  site  (which  is  better  suited  to 
the  end  desired)  an  economical  procedure  in  the 
end. 

In  general,  sewage  disposal  for  a  school  should 
not  include  the  water  from  the  roof  as  this  pro- 
duces an  excessive  amount  of  liquid  to  take  care 
of  in  a  very  short  time  and  at  infrequent  per- 
iods, so  that  the  plant  must  be  designed  entirely 
too  large  for  at  least  nine-tenths  of  the  time. 
This  in  itself  will  operate  so  strongly  against 
the  requirements  of  the  septic  tank  (explained 
litter)  as  to  make  success  almost  impossible.  It 
will  in  addition  require  a  much  larger  initial 
expenditure  for  needless  capacity.  The  roof 
water  should  be  carried  to  nearby  dry  wells, 
spilled  into  a  creek  or  gutter,  or  (if  desired) 
it  can  be  collected  in  a  cistern  and  pumped  into 
a  tank  from  which  it  may  be  drawn  to  flush 
Avater  closets.  Assuming,  therefore,  that  the 
roof  drainage  may  be  neglected  in  this  particu- 
lar discussion,  the  disposal  system  must  take 
care  of  all  drainage  for  the  building  which  will 
average  about  100  gallons  per  day  per  person  in 
ordinary  structures  occupied  24  hours  per  day. 
A  school,  however,  is  not  occupied  for  this 
length  of  time;  no  laundry  work  is  done  there 
and  little  water  is  used  for  culinary  purposes. 
In  consideration  of  these  facts  the  amount  of 
sewage  per  piqjiil  drops  from  100  gallons  to 
about  one-third,  to  approximately  30  gallons  per 
pupil  per  day. 

There  are  several  methods  of  sewage  disposal 
which  can  be  used;  the  intermittent  sand  filter 
system,  the  contact  system,  the  percolating  filter 
system  and  the  field  absorption  system.     It  is 


sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  this  discussion  to 
say  that  most  disposal  systems  (excepting  that 
of  field  absorption)  employ  open  tanks  or  filters 
and  that  such  installations  are  not  desira:ble  for 
school  work  owing  to  the  odors,  to  the  danger 
of  pupils  falling  in,  etc.  How  a  disposal  system 
can  take  raw  sewage  and  without  the  addition 
01  any  chemicals  or  other  ingredients  and  with- 
out any  mechanical  manipulation  whatsoever 
can  produce  a  resultant,  free  from  germs  and 
comparatively  harmless  is  indeed  wonderful. 
That  this  discharge  can  be  purified  to  a  point 
exceeding  that  of  drinking  water  is  little  short 
of  marvelous !  Such  are  the  facts,  however,  and 
the  results  are  obtained  simply  by  the  intelli- 
gent use  of  the  natural  laws  and  forces  which 
we  have  at  hand. 

Sewage  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  water. 
This  water  carries  a  few  other  substances  such 
as  waste  matter,  soap  suds,  grease  and  other  in- 
gredients, and  some  insoluble  minerals  which 
may  get  into  the  system.  It  is  a  well  known 
fact  that  animal  and  vegetable  matter  when 
thrown  upon  the  ground  will  putrefy,  or  rot, 
and  gradually  disappear.  In  fact,  the  original 
sewage  disposal  system  consisted  of  this  natural 
process  to  dispose  of  the  slops  and  filth.  Where 
too  many  slops  were  thrown  in  the  same  spot 
the  ground  became  water  soaked  and  turned 
sour.  This  process,  scientists  tell  us,  is  entirely 
due  to  the  activity  of  bacteria.  These  bacteria 
divide  into  two  classes,  one  of  which  breaks 
down  or  decomposes  the  material  and  the  second 
of  which  purifies  or  makes  harmless  the  result- 
ant. Let  us  see  how  this  can  be  applied  to  the 
modem  septic  tank. 

The  modern  septic  tank  is  generally  built 
somewhat  in  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  118,  the 
sewage  entering  a  chamber  A  thru  the  inlet  I, 
passing  under  a  partition  E,  into  the  septic 
chamber  B.  The  sewage  decomposes  as  it  moves 
slowly  thru  the  chamber  towards  the  division 
wall  F.  When  the  sewage  enters  the  tank  the 
heavier  portions  and  those  which  are  insoluble 
settle  to  the  bottom  forming  the  sludge  indi- 
cated by  X.  After  the  tank  has  been  in  service 
for  some  time  a  spongy,  slimy  mat  is  formed  in 


78 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


79 


?^\\V\^/^/-<?yNV^^xy/A's\VV>V/X/<S^SV 


ijS::^^F>As\'^/J^^ 


Fig.  lis. 


A^ 


c 


^^^^ 


G 


r 


(0)C=l@ 


o 


OCCI© 


Of 


/r-. 


4? 


Fig.  119. 


80 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


chamber  B.  This  mat  floats  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  and  serves  to  colonize  and  multiply 
the  bacteria  in  the  tank.  Access  to  the  tank  is 
obtained  thru  the  manholes  MH,  which  are  set 
at  the  finished  grade  FG.  After  it  is  completed 
the  tank  is  invisible,  being  entirely  buried 
under-ground.  Only  the  three  manholes  and  the 
vent  V  extend  up  to  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  are  visible. 


who  think  a  septic  tank  is  a  sort  of  a  sewage 
panacea.  The  remaining  work  consists  of  ren- 
dering this  discharge  pure  and  of  absorbing  it 
or  of  taking  care  of  it  in  some  other  inoffensive 
manner. 

Before  we  leave  the  subject  of  septic  tanks 
let  us  glance  at  Fig  119  which  is  another  type 
of  tank  to  serve  the  same  purpose.  This  tank 
is  built  with  a  center  division  and  has  two  in- 


By  the  time  the  sewage  reaches  the  dam  G  it 
has  become  a  thoroly  dissolved  solution  which 
pours  over  the  dam  into  the  chamber  C  known 
as  the  discharge  or  "dosing"  chamber.  In  this 
chamber  the  outlet  from  the  tank  is  located. 
This  outlet  is  governed  by  the  syphon  S  which 
discharges  thru  the  drain  D  intermittently  for 
purposes  later  explained.  Now  the  action  in  the 
septic  tank,  it  must  be  thoroly  understood,  is 
only  half  of  the  complete  purifying  operation. 
The  discharge  from  the  tank  is  not  harmless 
or  odorless,  contrary  to  the  ideas  of  many  people 


lets,  A  and  B,  and  two  outlets,  K  and  L,  gov- 
erned by  the  syphons,  I  and  J.  The  sewage 
entering  at  A  passes  into  chamber  C  which  is 
known  as  the  "settling"  chamber.  All  the  heavy 
matter  sinks  to  the  bottom  in  this  chamber  and 
the  water  overflows  the  dam  X  into  chamber  E 
(known  as  the  "septic"  chamber)  where  the 
septic  action  takes  place,  altho  some  decompos- 
ing work  goes  on  in  chamber  C  as  well.  After 
passing  thru  chamber  E,  the  middle  stratum  of 
the  water  passes  up  thru  the  pipe  in  the  wall  Y 
and  thru  the  wall  into  the  dosing  chamber  G. 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


81 


Similar  action  is  followed  on  the  other  side  of 
the  tank  where  the  sewage  coming  in  at  B, 
passes  thru  D,  F  and  H  and  then  out  of  tlie 
dosing  chamber  by  means  of  L.  It  will  be  noted 
in  the  sectional  view  that  this  tank  is  shown  as 
set  flush  with  the  grade  M  so  that  the  whole  top 
of  the  tank  is  exposed.  Either  this  or  the  method 
used  for  the  first  tank  is  permissible. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  article  a  tank  for 
500  pupils  has  been  shown.  This  is  because  few 
elementary  schools  exceed  this  number  of  pupils, 
particularly  in  sections  where  no  sewers  exist. 
Therefore,  it  is  the  disposal  equipment  shown 
for  the  maximum  condition  likely  to  be  encoun- 
tered. 

The  most  important  points  of  septic  tank  de- 
sign relate  to  the  cultivation  of  the  bacteria 
therein.     It   is   a   remarkable   fact   that   a   new 


that  the  septic  tank  gives  less  and  less  satisfac- 
tory results  as  the  sewage  discharge  into  it  be- 
comes more  and  more  intermittent  and  irreg- 
ular. 

The  sewage  in  passing  thru  the  tank  becomes 
too  far  fermented  if  it  remains  more  than  24 
hours  and  on  the  other  hand  is  not  properly 
acted  upon  if  it  remains  less  than  this  period. 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  a  septic  tank 
applied  to  schools  will  not  give  as  satisfactory 
service  as  one  applied  to  an  institution  such  as 
a  hospital  or  alms  house  where  the  building  is 
occupied  both  day  and  night  and  seven  days  a 
week.  In  fact,  septic  tanks  have  been  found  to 
be  quite  impracticahle  for  churches  where  they 
are  used  only  one  day  a  week.  Therefore,  for 
500  pupils  at  say  30  gallons  each  per  day,  the 
total  daily  sewage  will  be  15,000  gallons.     This 


c 


"7 


y/A^^^/y^\<^y'//\   \}}/^\\'^))///^\\\^{ 


'^K\\\\'^/M\\\[^V, 


Fig.  122. 


septic  tank  gives  but  little  satisfaction  for  a 
period  of  approximately  six  weeks  which  is  the 
time  required  to  develop  the  bacteria  to  their 
most  active  condition.  The  condition  of  inac- 
tivity also  follows  whenever  a  tank  is  cleaned, 
unless  a  portion  of  the  "mat"  is  retained  and 
"planted"  in  the  new  tank  to  accelerate  fermen- 
tation. 

In  passing  thru,  the  water  in  the  tank  should 
be  agitated  as  little  as  possible  so  as  not  to 
hinder  the  formation  of  the  mat,  maintaining 
the  same  intact  after  it  has  formed  and  also  in 
Older  not  to  disturb  the  sludge  or  non-decom- 
posing material  which  settles  to  the  bottom.  As 
the  bacteriological  action  which  goes  on  is  a 
constant  one  continuing  unceasingly  in  the 
darkness  both  night  and  day,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  best  results  are  obtained  where  the 
discharge  of  sewage  into  the  tank  is  constant  or 
almost  constant  during  the  whole  24  hours  and 

6 


reduced  to  cubic  feet  (15,000  divided  by  7^) 
gives  2,000  cu.  ft.  This  is  the  required  capacity 
of  the  tank  exclusive  of  the  dosing  chamber.  In 
the  second  tank  shown  the  combined  capacities 
of  both  sides  must  be  considered. 

The  discharge  from  a  septic  tank  for  schools 
should  be  taken  care  of  if  possible  by  what  is 
known  as  a  disposal  field  or  rather  two  disposal 
fields.  Two  fields  are  desirable  since  it  is  neces- 
sary to  turn  the  sewage  into  one  field  one  day 
and  into  the  other  field  the  next  day,  giving  each 
field  a  breathing  space  of  24  hours  in  which  to 
dry  out.  A  typical  case  of  this  kind  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  120  in  which  the  school  building 
SB  is  supposed  to  house  500  pupils.  The  8  in. 
sewer  leaves  the  building  and  flows  down  to  the 
septic  tank  SB  (the  detail  of  which  has  already 
been  shown  in  Fig.  A).  After  leaving  the  septic 
tank  the  sewage  goes  to  the  three-way  valve  V 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


s 


wa 


^ 


which  throws  it  into  one 
of  the  two  branches  lead- 
ing to  disposal  field  "DF 
No.  1"  or  to  disposal  field 
"DF  No.  2." 

It  is  essential  in  order 
to  Ket  a  flow  from  the 
building  to  the  tank  and 
then  to  the  field  that  the 
field  be  located  at  a  lower 
level  than  the  point  at 
which  the  sewer  leaves  the 
school  basement.  If  this 
is  not  the  case  pumping 
must  be  resorted  to  which 
is  very  undesirable  as  well 
as  costly.  The  lines  on 
Fig.  120  marked  10,  9,  8, 
7,  etc.,  are  grade  lines, 
each  line  indicating  the 
fall  of  a  foot  in  the  ground 
level  going  from  the  build- 
ing to  tJie  field. 

The  disposal  fields  them- 
selves consist  of  3  in.  tile 
])ipe  T,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
121.  The  bottom  of  these 
ti'es  is  about  10  in.  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground, 
G.  They  are  laid  with 
open  joints  covered  by  a 
cap  C  and  set  in  a  trough 
B,  which  allows  a  small 
amount  of  leakage  at  each 
joint.  Where  the  earth  F 
is  not  of  a  porous  or  ah- 
sorbent  nature  these  tiles 
are  buried  in  trenches 
which  are  filled  in  with 
sand  and  gravel  F  so  as  to 
facilitate  the  absorption  of 
the  discharge  from  the 
septic  tank.  Another 
method  of  laying  tile  for 
these  fields  is  shown  in 
Fig.  122,  where  the  fin- 
ished grade  is  indicated  by 
G,  the  original  earth  by  E, 
a  special  absorbent  filling 
by  F,  the  main  distribu- 
tion line  M  supplying  the 
branches  B  which  are  in- 


stalled upon  bricks  S  so  as  to  keep  them  properly 
lined  up. 

To  prevent  these  fields  from  becoming  soggy 
and  sour  by  constant  applications  they  are  used 
alternately,  but  even  this  is  not  sufiicient.  If 
the  septic  tank  discharged  a  constant  flow  the 
ground  in  the  field  nearest  the  point  of  entrance 
of  the  pipe  line  would  be  over  saturated  by  the 
constant  supply  during  every  other  day  and  the 
remote  portions  of  the  field  would  never  be 
reached.  To  overcome  this  objection  the  dosing 
chamber  is  installed  in  the  tank  iriito  which  the 
sewage  passes  until  the  chamber  has  been  filled 
to  a  predetermined  level.  ^Vllen  this  point  is 
reached  the  syphon  is  filled  and  once  the  flow 
is  started  it  continues  until  the  chamber  is 
emptied  to  its  low  level.  This  results  in  supply- 
ing enough  liquid  to  penetrate  all  portions  of 
the  field  before  it  can  leak  out  thru  the  joints, 
thus,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  "dosing"  the 
field  thoroly. 

After  the  discharge  from  the  tank  enters  the 
soil  it  is  set  upon  by  the  second  class  of  bacteria 
which  require  air  in  order  to  properly  do  their 
work.  These  bacteria  are  thickest  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  gradually  disappear 
imtil  at  the  depth  of  five  or  six  feet  they  are 
practically  extinct.  These  bacteria  soon  render 
the  tank  discharge  practically  harmless  so  that 
it  amounts  to  little  more  than  introducing  an 
equal  amount  of  water  in  ithe  soil.  This  water 
is  rapidly  absorbed  and  vaporized  in  the  field  so 
that  no  drains  beyond  this  point  are  necessary. 

Another  method  whereby  more  superior  puri- 
fication results  can  be  obtained  is  known  as  the 
intermittent  filter  disposal  system,  an  idea  of 
which  can  be  obtained  from  Fig.  123.  Here  the 
drainage  line  DL  enters  the  septic  tank  S  as 
before.  After  passing  thru  the  tank  the  sewage 
is  discharged  by  a  syphon  to  the  distributing 
pipe  DP  which  is  laid  on  top  of  a  filter  bed  F. 
This  bed  is  made  of  broken  material  allowing 
more  or  less  free  circulation  of  air  down  into 
the  mass.  After  dripping  thru  this  material 
which  is  confined  in  a  concrete  basin  the  liquid 
finds  its  way  iruto  the  underdrain  UD  which  dis- 
charges it  into  the  manhole  MH.  From  this  au 
outlet  is  taken  into  a  nearby  stream  or  lake  or 
into  a  similar  secondary  filter  and  even  in  some 
cases  (where  the  highest  degree  of  purification 
is  desired)  thru  a  third  filter.  In  this  figure, 
G  indicates  the  finished  grade,  I  a  slope  down  to 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


83 


the  top  of  the  filter  bed,  and  E  the  original 
earth.  Filter  beds  of  this  type  must  be  open  and 
while  giving  a  greater  capacity  of  absorption 
for  the  same  ground  area  they  are  not  as  desir- 
able for  schools  as  the  disposal  fieM.     Of  course 


it  is  desirable  with  schools  to  have  everything 
covered  from  inquisitive  pupils  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  for  this  reason  the  disposal  field  is 
the  most  desirable  method  of  taking  care  of  the 
septic  tank  discharge. 


A  SCHOOL  LABORATORY. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


The  School  Power  Plant 

Few  school  boards  realize  the  economy  of  a      be  produced  for  tins  special  purpose  and,  instead 


school  power  plant  and  fewer  still  adopt  the 
idea  even  after  being  convinced.  The  reasons 
for  this  will  appear  later,  but  regardless  of  the 
variety  of  objections  often  urged  against  such 
installations,  their  desirability  is  beyond  ques- 
tion in  many  cases. 

It  must  be  understood  at  the  start  that  a 
power  plant  consists  of  boilers,  engines,  genera- 
tors, feed  water  heaters  and  the  other  apparatus 
necessary  to  produce  electric  current  sufficient 
for  the  needs  of  the  school.  With  such  current 
available,  it  should  be  used  for  any  and  all  pur- 
poses wherever  necessary  in  order  to  secure  the 
maximum  advantages  at  minimum  cost. 

Electric  current  for  motors,  lights,  experi- 
ments, etc.,  is  daily  becoming  a  greater  and 
greater  necessity  in  the  modern  school  building. 
As  an  example  of  this  it  may  be  said  that  one 
of  the  new  Pittsburgh  High  Schools  uses  for 
ventilation  alone  some  23  fans,  several  of  which 
require  motors  from  30  to  50  horsepower  each. 
Having  once  installed  a  power  plant,  current  in 
any  reasonable  amount  can  be  generated  for 
school  use  at  little  or  no  additional  expense. 

This  is  explained  in  the  following  manner: 
Steam  must  be  generated  to  heat  the  building  in 
any  event  and  to  produce  this  required  amount 
of  steam  a  given  amount  of  coal  must  be  con- 
sumed. Now  if  this  steam  is  raised  to  60  lbs. 
Of  100  lbs.  pressure  (instead  of  only  the  5 
pounds  usually  carried  on  low  pressure  heating 
systems)  there  is  a  tremendous  amount  of  energy 
available  which  can  be  turned  into  electric  power 
by  passing  the  steam  thru  an  engine  connected 
to  a  generator  with  a  loss  of  only  a  very  small 
portion  of  the  heating  capacity  of  the  steam. 
After  passing  thru  the  engine  about  95  per  cent 
of  the  original  heating  value  of  the  steam  is 
available  in  the  exhaust  steam,  at  5  pounds 
pressure,  for  heating  the  building. 

The  steam  required  for  heating  is  usually  so 
far  in  excess  of  the  amount  required  for  power 
that  little  if  any  additional  steam  is  ever  needed 
for  power  purposes,  except  on  warm  days  in  the 
spring  and  fall  when  no  heat  is  required.  At 
these  times  the  steam  required  for  power  must 


of  being  turned  into  the  heating  system  is 
thrown  out  thru  the  free  exhaust  pipe.  Were 
it  not  for  this  waste  in  warm  weather,  power 
cculd  be  produced  even  more  profitably  than  at 
present. 

Some  one  in  making  a  comparison  of  the  cost 
of  buying  current  from  a  lighting  company  and 
producing  current  on  the  premises  combined 
with  using  the  exhaust  steam  for  heating,  has 
deduced  the  fact  that  even  if  the  lighting  com- 
pany could  produce  its  current  free  of  charge 
the  cost  of  distribution  alone  is  sufficiently  high 
as  to  make  a  private  plant  cheaper.  This  state- 
ment however,  must  be  limited  in  its  application 
to  large  consumers  and  to  districts  not  imme- 
diately adjacent  to  large  central  power  stations. 

There  need  be  no  concern  for  the  safety  of  a 
high  pressure  plant  in  a  public  building,  such 
an  a  schoolhouse.  There  is  no  reason  to  rule 
against  a  plant  in  this  particular.  Almost  all 
large  office  buildings,  large  department  stores 
and  the  large  majority  of  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments own  and  daily  operate  plants  of  ex- 
actly this  description.  High  pressure  can  be, 
and  is,  made  as  safe  as  low  pressure,  while 
greater  and  more  numerous  safeguards  are  in- 
stalled to  prevent  even  the  possibility  of  acci- 
dent. 

As  to  cost:  The  average  school  can  make  all 
the  changes  necessary  to  install  a  plant  at  a 
cost  approximating  $10,000.00.  The  fixed  in- 
terest charge  on  this  amount  will  be  about  $500 
per  year  to  which  must  be  added  depreciation, 
repairs,  extra  coal,  attendance,  etc.  The  amount 
of  depreciation  is  usually  considered  as  about 
5  per  cent  per  annum  and  the  upkeep  about 
2  per  cent  which  gives  some  12  per  cent  (count- 
ing fixed  interest  charges)  of  the  initial  invest- 
ment to  be  charged  up  to  the  cost  of  running 
the  plant  each  year.  There  will  also  be  some 
additional  coal  used  to  supply  power  only,  dur- 
ing the  warmer  days  of  the  late  spring  and  early 
fall.  Just  how  much  this  would  amount  to  is 
problematical  depending  on  the  season,  amount 
of  power  used,  fireman,  etc.  It  would  proib- 
ably   be  fair   to   assume   about  90   to   100   tons 


84 


THE  SCHOOL  POWER  PLANT 


85 


might  be  used  costing  perhaps  some  $400  to 
$500.  Additional  labor  in  the  boiler  and  engine 
room  might  cost  another  $400  and  engine  room 
supplies  such  as  oil,  waste,  etc.,  about  $100. 

From  this  it  can  be  seen  that  a  plant  costing 
$10,000  initially  would  require 

10,000  X  12%  equals  $1,200  fixed  charges 

500  additional  ooal 
400  additional  labor 
100  miscellaneous 


$2,200  total  operating 

cost  per  year, 
or  a  monthly  average  for  ten  months  of  about 


$225.  Just  at  the  present  owing  to  the  abnor- 
mally high  prices,  the  initial  cost  of  a  plant 
might,  and  probably  would,  somewhat  exceed  the 
above  estimate  but  this  would  affect  the  yearly 
operating  cost  but  little  especially  when  dis- 
tributed over  ten  months  during  the  year.  The 
modern  high  school,  however,  has  but  little  dif- 
ficulty in  running  up  an  electric  bill  of  $600  to 
$1,200  per  month  depending  on  the  rat€  paid, 
amount  of  night  school,  and  minimum  rates  for 
summer  ase  when  the  school  is  not  in  session. 

The  economy  of  school  power  plants  may  per- 
haps be  understood  better  thru  a  description  of 
a   typical   power  plant   installed   in   1915    in   a 


Fig.  124. 


86 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


high  school  in  an  Eastern  city.  This  plant  has 
given  the  utmost  satisfaction  to  the  board  in 
charge.  The  original  intention  was  not  to  in- 
stall a  plant  but  on  the  contrary  to  construct 
a  swimming  pool.  Tentative  estimates  on  the 
cost  of  the  pool  and  of  its  operation  caused  the 
board  of  education  to  abandon  the  proposed 
plans.  The  space  was  very  conveniently  turned 
into  an  engine  room  when  the  board  realized 
that  an  annual  saving  of  more  than  $1,500  could 
be  made  by  such  an  arrangement. 

It  is  always  well  in  installing  low  pressure 
heating  plants  to  provide  (as  was  done  in  this 
case)  boilers  designed  to  stand  high  pressure  so 
that  power  can  be  generated  in  them  later  if 
desired.  The  additional  cost  of  such  boilers  is 
not  much,  and  their  usefulness  for  possible 
future  power  purposes  is  desirable.  For  this 
reason  cast  iron  boilers  are  not  well  suited  for 
large  schools  where  power  may  be  desired  later. 
Cast  iron  boilers  cannot  safely  carry  high  steam 
pressure  under  any  condition. 

In  the  particular  case  referred  to,  two  generat- 
ing units  were  installed,  one  of  50  kilowatt  and 
the  other  of  75  kilowatt  capacity.  One  of  these 
units  can  te  run  in  case  the  other  breaks  down, 
but  the  larger  unit  must  be  utilized  when  the 
auditorium  is  used  at  the  same  time  as  the  class- 
rooms.    This  condition  is,  of  course,  very  rare. 

The  three  boilers  shown  in  the  plan  in  Fig. 
124,  supply  steam  to  a  high  pressure  header 
running  across  the  boilers  near  the  front.  From 
this  header  all  steam  is  taken;  the  branch  at 
the  right  hand  end  goes  thru  the  wall  into  the 
engine  room  and  supplies  the  two  engines.  Just 
to  the  left  and  in  front  of  the  boiler  connection 


Chimney^ 


£xhaiJst/feo</ 


Roof  of 
Main  Bui/diny 


Roof  of  Boiler  Ro> 


^ Steam toH.W.  Tont< 

^3team  /c  £ui/e/in^ 


Oi/  Seporatof 
i:iih.  from  Sny.  No.  I 


€1= 


-- —        \^ 


Fig.  125. 


■h-^.'^Jt:^ 


Fig.  126. 

is  a  steam  connection,  passing  thru  a  pressure 
reducing  valve  PK-V  and  into  the  header  ex- 
tending across  the  back  of  the  boilers.  From 
this  all  steam  for  heating  the  building  is  taken. 
A  branch  from  this  header  also  supplies  steam 
to  the  feed  water  heater. 

To  understand  the  free  exhaust  and  oil  sepa- 
rator, the  plan  shown  in  Fig.  125  must  be  re- 
ferred to  and  the  path  of  the  exhaust  must  be 
followed.  This  exhaust  pipe  is  laid  in  a  trench 
underneath  the  floor  to  a  vertical  riser,  marked 
"Thru  the  Eoof."  The  exhaust  steam  is  carried 
from  the  engines  into  the  exhaust  to  the  vertical 
riser.     At  the   ceiling  this   riser  has   a   branch 


THE  SCHOOL  POWER  PLANT 


87 


E^ 


•^-•:' w 


Fig.  127. 


going  thru  an  oil  separator  into  the  heating  sys- 
tem. In  warm  weather  the  exhaust  steam  en- 
ters a  second  branch  thru  a  back  pressure  valve 
directly  to  the  outside  air.  The  method  of  pipe 
arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  126,  which  is  an 
elevation  of  the  riser  with  the  branch  to  the  oil 
separator  and  the  extension  of  the  riser  to  the 
exhaust  head  on  the  roof. 

A  cross  section  thru  ihe  boilers  and  engine 
room  is  shown  in  Fig.  127.  This  view  also  in- 
dicates how  the  exhaust  pipe  is  carried  under 
the  engine  room  floor. 

After  completion,  this  plant  was  carefully 
tested  out  and  has  since  given  ev^ery  satisfaction. 

In  this  school  the  boilers  were  installed  before 
the  final  decision  was  made  by  the  board  to  in- 
stall a  plant.  Owing  to  the  foresight  of  the 
engineers  these  boilers  were,  luckily,  capable 
of  carrying  high  pressure  so  that  the  changes 
were  limited  to  the  installation  of  engines,  pip- 
ing, feed  water  heater,  etc.  The  plant  is  saving 
yearly  more  than  $1,500  (in  some  years  nearly 
$2,000)  per  year  which  is  equal  to  a  20  per  cent 
interest  rate  on  the  investment  of  $10,000.  Of 
course  some  extra  ooal,  attendance,  oil,  etc.,  are 
required  but  these  are  not  sufficient  to  seriously 
impair  the  good  showing  made. 

Objection  to  a  school  plant  is  sometimes  urged 
on  the  basis  of  dirt  and  noise.  Both  of  these 
charges  are  unfair  to  properly  designed  plants. 
Many  engines  are  so  well  built  and  carefully 
balanced  that  a  person  standing  just  outside  of 
the  engine  room  door  cannot  tell  whether  they 
are  in  operation  or  not.  So  far  as  dirt  is  con- 
cerned, the  engine  room  is  far  cleaner  than  any 
boiler  room.  This  may  be  readily  seen  from 
the  two  views  accompanying  this  article.     Fig. 


128  is  a  view  of  the  boiler  room  and  Fig.  129, 
a  view  of  the  engine  room.  The  pictures  show 
that  the  latter  is  absolutely  clean  beyond  any 
possible  censure. 

Sometimes  such  seeming  difficulties  are  en- 
countered as  a  requirement  for  a  small  amount 
of  power  for  the  operation  of  a  small  motor  or 
a  few  lights.  In  the  building  described  it  was 
desired  to  run  the  house  pump — which  supplied 
\\  ater  to  the  tank  on  the  roof — during  the  sum- 
mer and  also  to  furnish  light  to  the  offices  occu- 
pied by  the  school  board  and  administrative 
officers.  For  this  purpose  a  gas  engine  of  9^ 
horsepower,  operating  a  7^  kilowatt  generator, 
is  used  as  an  emergency.  It  is  run  only  for 
small  power  requirements  when  the  main  plant 
is  not  in  operation.  A  view  of  this  equipment 
including  the  house  pump  is  shown  in  Fig.  130. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  schools  which 
are  large  power  consumers  should  be  built  so  as 
to  make  the  installation  of  a  plant  possible: 

First — 'A  school,  capable  of  economically  in- 
stalling its  own  plant  so  as  to  compete  with  the 
local  service  company,  can  generally  secure  a 
reduction  in  the  rate  charged  for  current,  solely 
because  of  this  far-sighted  arrangement. 

Second — A  school  so  arranged  can  at  any  time 
install  a  plant  if  the  power  requirements  in- 
crease or  the  local  rates  for  current  are  raised. 

Third — ^A  school  with  boilers  and  piping,  de- 
signed for  power  plant  service,  will  have  a  much 
more  serviceable  equipment  and  a  better  heating 
installation  at  the  most  important  point  in  the 
heating  system,  viz.,  where  the  heat  is  developed. 

Schools,  which  have  large  power  requirements 
and  in  which  plants  are  installed,  have  found 
the  following  advantageous : 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Fig.  128. 


Fig,  129. 


THE  SCHOOL  POWER  PLANT 


89 


First — Current  can  be  obtained  in  almost  un- 
limited quantities  with  practically  no  addi- 
tional expense. 

Second — ^The  buildings  are  entirely  independ- 
ent of  outside  trouble  such  as  wires  blown  down, 
trouble  at  the  central  station,  etc. 

Third — No  charges  are  incurred  during  sum- 
mer closing. 

Fourth — Current  of  any  kind  or  quality  can 
be  generated  whereas,  with  outside  service,  cur- 
rent (such  as  the  local  service  company  decides 
to  furnish)  must  be  accepted  and  used.  Often- 
times such  outside  current  is  totally  unsuited 
for  school  work. 

Fifth — It  is  possible  to  have  all  the  above  ad- 
vantages and*still  save  money  to  a  considerable 
extent,  the  exact  amount  depending  on  the  local 
conditions. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  most  of  the  current 
furnished  by  service  companies  is  of  the  "alter- 
nating" variety  which,  while  suitable  for  lights, 
is  totally  unsuited  for  school  work  where  motors 
are  directly  connected  to  large  ventilating  fans 
and  other  apparatus  is  used  requiring  slow  speed 


or  variable  control  motors.  Alternating  current 
in  fact  is  so  undesirable  that  in  many  schools 
a  motor-generator  set  is  installed  consisting  of 
an  alternating  current  motor  operated  by  out- 
side current.  This  motor  drives  a  "direct  cur- 
rent" generator  which,  in  turn,  supplies  the 
school.  While  the  result  attained  with  such 
apparatus  is  the  same  as  if  direct  current  were 
furnished  by  the  company  it  is  not  economical. 
Only  about  90  per  cent  of  the  energy  put  in  at 
one  end  of  the  machine  comes  out  of  the  other 
and  thus  the  power  bill  is  increased  by  about  10 
per  cent  for  which  no  service  is  rendered. 

The  principal  reason  that  e-ectric  companies 
continue  to  furnish  alternating  current  is  that 
this  current  can  be  raised  to  higher  voltage  and 
therefore  can  be  transmitted  on  a  smaller  wire 
than  direct  current.  The  current  thus  meets 
most  economically  the  requirement  of  the  ser- 
vice company  whicli  is  the  transmission  of  cur- 
rent from  the  central  station  to  the  point  of  use 
v/ith  a  minimum  loss  and  least  cost.  The  con- 
sumer, however,  must  take  it  as  delivered  re- 
gardless of  the  requirements  at  the  consuming 
end  of  the  line  and  of  his  own  interests. 


Fig.  130. 


CHAPTER  XV 


The  School  Swimming  Pool 


Schools  in  which  swimming  pools  are  installed 
are  becoming  more  common  every  day,  and 
among  the  newer  schools  recently  planned  or 
already  in  process  of  erection,  pools  are  the  rule 
rather  than  the  exception.  This  applies  of 
course  to  buildings  of  reasonably  pretentious 
character  and  where  other  facilities  are  simi- 
larly complete.  As  all  indications  seem  to 
clearly  point  toward  the  increased  use  of  pools 
in  the  years  to  come,  it  is  essential  that  they  be 
viewed  from  a  proper  standpoint  and  considered 
with  regard  to  their  operating  cost  as  well  as 
initial  outlay. 

Painful  as  the  fact  may  be  to  the  ardent  advo- 
cate  of  the  pool,   it   is   undoubtedly   true   that 


^o^\4   '^f 


J.<:V''.^''4< 


Fig.  131. 

pools  are  far  from  being  an  unmixed  blessing. 
They  are  expensive  to  install,  require  some  ex- 
penditure to  maintain,  must  be  provided  with 
one  or  more  attendants,  must  be  heated,  should 
have  rigid  sanitary  rules  enforced  to  prevent 
their  becoming  a  source  of  danger  and,  alto- 
gether, are  more  or  less  of  a  responsibility. 

Accidents,  too,  have  happened  such  as  occa- 
sional drownings,  diving  into  a  pool  basin  after 
the  water  has  been  withdrawn,  striking  the  head 
on  the  bottom  when  diving,  etc.,  etc.  True,  such 
accidents  are  comparatively  rare,  yet  they  are 
not  so  impossible  as  to  have  already  actually 
happened. 


On  the  other  hand  the  increasing  popularity 
of  the  pool  shows  its  capability  for  assisting 
hygiene  by  promoting  bodily  cleanliness — not  so 
much  with  the  idea  of  actually  washing  in  the 
pool  as  by  making  the  pool  act  as  an  induce- 
ment to  take  the  good  shower  bath  required  he- 
fore  entrance  into  the  pool  is  permitted.  Many 
schools  are  also  making  their  pools  serve  others 
besides  the  pupils  of  the  building,  each  building 
being  thrown  open  on  evenings  and  Saturdays 
to  the  entire  adult  population  of  its  respective 
district.  This  is  falling  directly  in  line  with  the 
increasingly  popular  idea  of  making  a  school, 
not  only  a  place  of  learning,  but  in  truth  a  com- 
munity, or  civic,  center. 

^Vhile  accidents  are  indeed  possible,  the  pres- 
ence of  an  instructor,  combined  with  clear  water 
in  the  pool  and  good  light  will  make  the  danger 
sufficiently  remote  to  be  reasonably  neglected. 
Undoubtedly  the  greatest  danger  is  from  the 
spread  of  disease  thru  the  medium  of  the  pool 
water.  This,  if  not  guarded  against,  is  indeed 
a  most  serious  danger.  Yet  it  can  be  effectually 
guarded  against,  and  science  has  made  the  pool 
operated  along  modern  sanitary  lines  entirely 
safe. 

The  simplest  method  of  obtaining  pure  water 
in  the  pool  and  one  that  readily  suggests  itself 
when  contamination  of  pool  water  is  considered 
is  to  run  in  fresh  water!  This  seems  so  simple, 
so  efficient  and  so  satisfactory  a  solution  of  the 
problem  that  it  should  be  entirely  unnecessary 
to  go  farther.  Now,  there  is  little  to  be  said 
against  such  a  procedure  until  the  bills  for  water 
(and  coal  to  heat  the  water)  begin  to  come  in; 
and  the  worst  of  it  is  that  these  bills  will  keep 
growing  and  growing,  as  the  pool  becomes  more 
and  more  popular,  until  they  become  excessively 
large. 

Yet  facts  are  facts !  In  dollars  and  cents  the 
ordinary  pool  costs  about  $5  to  heat  with  coal 
at  $5  per  ton  and  about  $7  for  water  with  water 
ac  $1  per  thousand  cubic  feet.  This  makes  a 
total  cost  of  changing  the  water  in  the  pool  of 
$12  each  time,  and  this  brings  up  the  question 


90 


THE  SCHOOL  SWIMMING  POOL 


91 


of  how  many  times  the  water  must  be  changed 
in  a  year. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  with  this  method 
the  water  enters  the  pool  directly  from  the  city 
mains  (or  other  source  of  supply)  and — from  the 
time  the  first  user  enters  the  pool  until  it  is 
finally  run  off  and  a  new  change  of  water  run  in 
— constantly  and  continuously  increases  its  bac- 
teria and  other  impurities,  it  can  be  seen  that  a 
considerable  quantity  of  fresh  water  must  be 
used  to  dilute  the  impurities  a  sufficient  amount 
so  as  to  render  them  negligible.  Actual  experi- 
ments in  pools  operated  under  this  plan  show 
that  about  25  gallons  of  fresh  water  are  required 
for  each  bather  who  uses  the  pool,  and  the  fre- 
quency of  change,  therefore,  depends  almost  en- 
tirely on  the  number  of  users.  Supposing  200 
persons  use  the  pool  each  day.  This  means  5,000 
gallons  of  fresh  water  per  day,  or  a  complete 
change  of  water  once  every  ten  days.  With  four 
hundred  users  the  pool  would  have  to  be  changed 
every  five  days,  etc.  The  average  practice  seems 
to  require  a  change  about  once  a  week  so  that  in 
a  year  the  cost  of  coal  and  water  will  amount  to 
about  $12  X  52  or  $624  per  year.  And  remember, 
with  this  method  there  is  no  guarantee  of  free- 
dom from  bacterial  dangers — for  while  the  dan- 
ger is  lessened  it  is  not  entirely  removed  by  any 
means. 

On  the  other  hand  a  pool  can  be  equipped 
with  mechanical  devices  which  render  the  use  of 
heat  practically  nil  and  which  keep  the  water 
in  a  purer  condition  than  when  it  originally 
entered  from  the  city  main.  So  far  as  cost  is 
concerned  these  devices  can  be  paid  entirely  in 
three  or  four  years  out  of  the  saving  made  over 
the  cost  of  operation  when  raw  water  is  used  all 
the  time.  This  plan  of  operation  involves  the 
use  of  heaters,  filters,  sterilizers,  aeration,  and  a 
CG-agulant  feed  into  the  water. 

In  purifying  swimming  pool  water  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to 

(a)  Inject  a  co-agulant  which  causes  the  im- 
purities to  lump  or  clot  together  so  as  to  be 
easily  strained  out. 

b)  Strain  out  all  coarser  impurities  by  driv- 
ing the  water  thru  a  filter  just  as  water  is  fil- 
tered in  nature  by  passing  thru  the  porous 
rocks. 

(c)  Kill  various  dangerous  or  undesirable  bac- 
teria by  means  of  sterilization,  either  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  chemical  or  by  electrocution. 


(d)  Mix  the  water  with  air — called  aeration — 
to  oxidize  certain  bacteria  and  to  combine 
minute  particles  of  air  with  the  water  so  as  to 
m.ake  it  bright  and  sparkling. 

While  these  processes  sound  rather  formidable 
they  are  comparatively  simple,  the  co-agulant 
being  a  simple  solution  injected  into  the  water 
on  its  way  to  the  filter  so  as  to  make  the  impuri- 


Fig.  132. 

ties  more  easily  caught  thru  co-agulation  or  the 
formation  of  larger  particles.  The  co-agulant 
(usually  alum  is  used  for  this  purpose)  is 
placed  in  a  plain  iron  cylinder  and  part  of  the 
pool  water  going  to  the  filter  is  bypassed  so  as 
to  run  thru  the  alum  chamber.  As  a  result  a 
small  part  of  the  alum  is  dissolved  and  mixed 
with  the  pool  water  before  it  gets  to  the  filter. 

The  filter  is  a  common  cast  iron  shell  in  which 
sand,  quartz,  bone  black,  charcoal  or  other 
medium  is  used  and  thru  which  the  water  is 
forced.  A  sectional  view  of  a  common  type  of 
filter  used  for  this  purpose  is  shown  in  Fig.  131 
in  which  I  indicates  the  inlet,  O  the  outlet, 
B  a  breaker  to  stir  up  the  bed  and  WO  a  wash- 
out pipe  for  running  off  the  discharge  when 
washing  out  the  filter  bed. 

The  sterilizer  may  be  similar  to  the  co-agulat- 
ing  receptacle  except  that  hypochloride  of  lime 
is  used.  The  sterilizer  may  be  of  more  preten- 
tious character  utilizing  electric  current  and 
killing  bacteria  by  means  of  the  ultra  violet  rays, 
similar  to  the  process  described  for  the  sterili- 
zation of  drinking  water. 


92 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


Aeration  is  secured  by  allowing  the  water  to 
shoot  thru  the  atmosphere.  It  is  generally 
effected  by  spraying  the  water  as  it  enters  the 
pcol  or  by  letting  it  fall  from  some  high  point 
into  the  pool,  as  shown  in  Fig.  132.  In  this  fig- 
ure, I  indicates  an  ornamental  inlet  such  as  a 
lion's  head,  etc. 

Supposing  this  equipment  is  installed,  how 
long  will  it  be  possible  to  retain  the  water  in 
the  pool  and  in  what  condition  would  it  be  at 
the  end  of  the  period?  In  answer  to  this  the 
ri!ther  surprising  statement  can  be  made  that 
the  water  may  be  used  indefinitely  and,  more 
astonishing  still,  that  the  water  can  be  main- 
tained at  even  a  higher  degree  of  purity  than 
its  original  natural  state!  In  other  words  a 
pcol  of  water  after  being  in  use  constantly  by 
bathers  for  even  as  long  a  period  as  three  years 
is  in  a  purer  state  than  any  natural  drinking 
water.  This  has  been  proven  by  actual  scientific 
tests  on  pools  after  such  periods  of  use.  From 
this  it  can  be  seen  that  when  pools  are  properly 
installed  and  operated  they  can  be  maintained 
at  such  a  degree  of  purity  as  to  make  talk  of 
contamination  a  joke,  except  to  the  ignorant. 

In  connection  with  this  it  is  interesting  to 
note  the  existing  practice  along  this  line,  as 
shown  by  queries  sent  to  some  five  hundred 
pcols  taken  at  random  thruout  the  country. 
While  replies  were  received  from  over  50  per 
cent  of  the  pools  the  results  shown  by  these 
answers  may  be  assumed  to  cover  the  average 
conditions  in  the  United  States  especially  on  the 
older  pools. 

The  answers  showed  that  roughly, 

(a)  The  average  capacity  of  pools  is  50,000 
gallons  and  94  per  cent  are  rectangular  in  shape 
running  in  size  from  20  x  10  feet  to  140  x  65 
feet. 

(b)  Some  68  per  cent  receive  natural  light 
either  from  skylights  or  windows. 

(c)  The  average  temperature  maintained  is 
about  74  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

(d)  The  pools  where  purity  is  maintained  by 
re-filling  with  fresh  water  amount  to  about  66 
per  cent  of  all  the  pools. 

(e)  Out  of  such  pools  only  4  per  cent  refill 
daily,  14  per  cent  every  other  day,  18  per  cent 
twice  a  week,  2  per  cent  every  five  days,  50 
per  cent  every  week,  8  per  cent  every  ten  days, 
5  per  cent  every  two  weeks  and  one  pool  only 
every  30  days. 


(f)  Some  34  per  cent  of  all  the  pools  employ 
filtration  of  which  100  per  cent  filter  the  water 
entering  the  pool,  64  per  cent  use  re-filtration  to 
maintain  purity,  20  per  cent  use  lime  and  2 
per  cent  sulphate  of  copper  in  addition;  another 
2  per  cent  employ  all  these  three  methods. 

(g)  About  60  per  cent  have  scum  gutters. 
Certain  accessories  accompany  a  pool  such  as 

shower  baths,  lockers,  towels,  suits,  etc.  Lockers 
must  be  provided  for  each  occupant  of  the  pool, 
and  showers  should  be  arranged  for  bathing  pur- 
poses besides  the  ones  installed  exclusively  for 
pool  use.  As  a  general  thing  the  locker  rooms 
are  designed  so  as  to  be  utilized  either  for  gym- 
nasium or  pool  purposes  as  desired.  Of  course 
where  outsiders  are  allowed  to  use  the  pool  this 
is  not  possible  but  where  school  pupils  alone  are 
to  be  considered  such  an  arrangement  is  usually 
adopted. 

In  connection  with  the  locker  rooms  and  often 
in  the  same  room  individual  showers  are  in- 
stalled for  rinsing  off  after  gymnasium  practice 
and  for  the  use  of  those  who  do  not  desire  to 
enter  the  pool.  Such  showers  are  not  used  in 
any  way  connected  with  the  pool  and  are  solely 
for  gymnasium  or  other  outside  use. 

The  showers  for  the  pool  users  are  commonly 
installed  between  the  entrance  to  the  pool  room 
?nd  the  pool  itself;  the  idea  being  to  force  all 
users  to  remain  at  least  a  full  minute  under  the 
shower  before  entering  the  pool.  By  this  means 
the  shower  washes  off  and  disposes  of  much  of 
the  coarser  impurities  which  would  otherwise 
be  carried  into  the  pool  and  where  they  would 
contaminate  the  water  very  rapidly. 

Supposing  that  it  has  been  decided  to  install' 
a  pool,  the  first  thing  to  be  determined  is  the 
location  and  size  of  the  room.  ^Vhile  it  is  en- 
tirely practical  to  install  a  pool  on  an  upper 
floor — this  having  been  done  in  more  than  one 
case — it  can  hardly  be  recommended  as  an  eco- 
nomical proposition  owing  to  the  great  weight 
of  water  and  walls  to  be  supported.  In  fact  in 
a  50,000  gallon  pool  the  weight  of  water  alone 
approximates  250  tons.  On  this  account  the  fav- 
orite pool  location  is  in  the  basement  where  it 
can  be  set  directly  on  the  ground  and  no  other 
structural  supports  are  needed. 

For  a  school  pool  where  both  sexes  are  to  be 
served,  it  has  proven  a  great  success  to  locate 
the  pool  in  the  middle  of  the  building  making 
one  end  of  the  basement  a  "boys"  section  with 
the  boys'  lockers,  showers,  play  room,  toilets,  etc.. 


THE  SCHOOL  SWIMMING  POOL 


93 


94 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


and  the  other  end  of  the  basement  a  "girls"  sec- 
tion with  similar  equipment  for  the  girls.  Then, 
by  opening  a  door  from  either  side  into  the  cor- 
ridor leading  to  the  pool,  direct  access  for  either 
boys  or  girls  into  the  pool  can  be  obtained  as 
desired  without  danger  of  conflict  between  the 
sexes. 

Fig.  133  shows  a  typical  school  pool  of  stand- 
ard size,  viz.,  20  feet  wide  by  60  feet  long. 
Usually  the  shallow  end  is  made  with  3  ft.  6 
in.,  to  4  ft.  6  in.,  depth  of  water,  and  the  deepest 
portion  with  7  feet  to  7  feet  6  inches  depth.  The 
pool  showers  are  shown  in  the  shape  of  three 
heads  set  over  a  gutter  directly  at  the  door  enter- 
ing the  pool  room.  These  heads  should  be  con- 
trolled by  a  valve  operated  by  the  instructor  who 
should  see  that  each  pupil  gets  a  thoro  drench- 
ing. It  will  be  noted  that  the  boys'  locker  room 
and  girls'  locker  rooms  are  located  adjacent  but 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  pool  room. 

The  most  economical  way  to  build  a  pool  of 
substantial  construction  consists  of  erecting  con- 
crete retaining  walls  with  a  reinforced  concrete 


bottom,  thus  forming  the  rough  shell  to  retain 
the  water.  Concrete  and  other  masonry,  how- 
ever, is  not  watertight  by  any  means  and  on  the 
inside  of  this  shell  must  be  placed  a  waterproof 
membrane  to  retain  the  water  and  to  prevent 
leakage. 

The  waterproofing  is  most  commonly  obtained 
by  coating  the  walls  and  bottom  with  hot  pitch, 
on  which  are  laid  successive  layers  of  tar  felt, 
each  layer  being  covered  with,  a  coating  of  hot 
pitch  before  the  next  is  applied  and  all  joints 
overlapped  about  eighteen  inches.  To  protect 
this  membrane  from  mechanical  injury  and  also 
to  form  a  proper  base  on  which  to  erect  the  tile 
or  enameled  brick  lining,  an  eight  inch  brick 
wall  is  built  inside  of  the  membrane  along  the 
sides  and  a  cement  floor  is  laid  over  the  bottom. 
Then  the  tile,  terra  cotta  or  enameled  brick  lin- 
ing— as  the  case  may  be — is  placed  to  form  a 
sanitary  flnish  on  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  pool. 
A  section  of  a  completed  pool  wall  is  shown  in 
Fig.  134.  Here,  C  indicates  concrete,  B  brick, 
M  mortar,  W  waterproofing,  P  pool,  E  earth 
and  T  tile  or  enameled  brick  facing. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Pool  Equipment 


Having  constructed  a  pool  the  next  problem  is 
the  matter  of  supplying  water  to  it.  The  most 
ideal  water  supply  and  one  that  gives  water  in 
almost  unlimited  quantities  is  an  artesian  well, 
but  owing  to  the  fact  that  wells  are  often  im- 
practical and  also  because  cold  water  is  always 
at  hand  for  use  in  the  toilets  and  showers  the 
pool  is  usually  supplied  from  the  general  source 
from  which  the  building  is  supplied. 

When  the  water  enters  the  pool  directly,  the 
temperature  is  entirely  too  low  for  use  and 
some  form  of  heating  is  necessary.  The  sim- 
plest method  is  to  heat  it  by  an  injector  using 
high  pressure  steam  and  shooting  the  pool  water 
mixed  with  the  steam  condensation  into  the  pool 
as  shown  in  Fig.  135,  which  is  self-explanatory. 
Owing  to  the  necessity  of  having  steam  at  30  or 
40  lbs.  pressure  in  order  to  operate  this  appa- 
ratus properly  and  to  rather  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults attained  by  this  method  it  is  little  used  in 
the  new  pools  now  being  built. 

Another  method  giving  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults is  shown  in  Fig.  136.  It  consists  of  hot 
water  heating  boilers  which  circulate  the  water 
between  the  pool  and  the  boilers  by  means  of 
gravity.  This  requires  that  the  boiler  be  set 
lower  than  the  pool  level — the  lower  the  boilers 
are  set  the  better  such  circulation  becomes.  Pro- 
vided it  is  possible  to  get  the  condensation  back 
to  the  steam  boiler,  a  steam  heater  could  be  sub- 
stituted in  place  of  the  hot  water  boiler  shown 
in  Fig.  136;  this,  however,  is  a  very  uncommon 
arrangement. 

Having  supplied  the  water  into  the  pool  and 
raised  it  to  a  satisfactory  temperature,  how  shall 
it'c  purity  be  assured  and  maintained?  Shall  it 
be  used  in  a  constantly  increasing  state  of  im- 
purity for  three  to  seven  days  (at  the  end  of 
which  time  it  must  be  wasted  and  a  new  supply 
run  in)  or  shall  it  be  filtered  before  entering 
and  then  refiltered  daily,  to  keep  it  in  fairly 
good  condition? 

Assuming  that  filters  are  to  be  used  this  im- 
mediately necessitates  the  use  of  a  pump  which 
is  commonly  termed  a  "circulation  pump"  to 
force  the  water  thru  the  filters  in  refiltering. 
The  best  type  of  pump  for  this  purpose  is  a  cen- 
trifugal pump  direct-connected  to  a  small  elec- 


tric motor.  A  IJ  in.  pump  is  entirely  sufficient 
for  the  standard  size  pool. 

The  circulation  pump  takes  the  water  from 
the  deepest  part  of  the  pool  (and  from  the  bot- 
tom thereof,  thus  securing  the  coldest  water) 
and  discharges  it  thru  a  heater  (usually  of  the 
steam  type  and  hung  on  the  ceiling)  from  which 
the  water  passes  to  the  filter  and  then  back  to 
the  pool.  On  re-entering  the  pool  it  is  desir- 
able to  insert  the  water  at  two  or  three  different 
points  preferredly  at  the  opposite  end  from 
which  the  pump  is  drawing  out  the  water.  This 
results  in  a  gradual  movement  of  the  water  from 
the  shallow  toward  the  deep  end,  and  prevents 
localizing  the  inflow  of  warm  water. 

If  a  filter  is  used  its  operation  should  be 
assisted  by  the  use  of  a  co-agulant  feeding  appa- 
ratus. This  is  very  inexpensive  and  consists 
simply  of  a  cast  iron  reservoir  in  which  alum 
is  placed.  The  amount  of  alum  fed  is  con- 
trolled by  allowing  a  smaller  or  larger  stream 
to  pass  thru  the  receptacle  dissolving  the  alum 
and  carrying  it  back  into  the  circulation  line  so 
as  to  mix  with  the  circulating  water  going  to 
the  filter. 

After  leaving  the  filter  the  water  should  pass 
thru  a  sterilizer  in  order  to  kill  the  remaining 
bacteria.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  filter 
is  in  fact  little  more  than  a  strainer  while  the 
sterilizer  is  a  germicidal  agent,  neither  being 
complete  without  the  other,  as  it  is  desired  to 
return  the  pool  water  both  clean  and  pure.  The 
sterilizer  is  also  an  inexpensive  feature.  If  one 
of  chemical  type  is  used,  it  is  similar  to  the 
co-agulant  chamber  in  construction  and  opera- 
tion except  that  it  uses  lime  instead  of  alunf. 

The  arrangement  of  such  apparatus  is  shown 
completely  in  Fig.  137  where  the  water  coming 
from  the  pool  goes  to  the  circulation  pump  and 
is  then  discharged  thru  a  check  valve  either  to 
the  sewer  (if  it  is  desired  to  empty  the  pool) 
or  to  the  steam  heater.  If  it  is  desired  to  by- 
pass the  heater  for  repairs,  or  any  other  reason 
the  valve  in  the  heater  by-pass  HJB  is  opened 
and  the  other  two  valves  are  shut.  The  water 
then  goes  to  the  filter  and  rises  toward  the  top 
connection  where  the  larger  part  bypasses  thru 
C'B,  the   two  small  lines  leading  to  and  from 


95 


96 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


--^)    ■■>'■   M-,  i;    ■..<^\o 


j¥/i^/p  Fres.  S/'eom^ 


^ 


a 


Injector  Tee- 


£.         -'   V'.O    '^ 


Fig.  135. 

'J^oo/      Room    JT/oo/' 


FiK.  13fi. 


Sfeom 


Fig.  137. 


POOL  EQUIPMENT 


97 


the  co-agulant  feed  so  that  a  small  portion  goes 
thru  the  co-agulant  receptacle  as  explained.  If 
it  is  desired  to  bypass  the  filter,  the  filter  by- 
pass FB  is  used,  the  water  passing  on  to  the 
sterilizer  where  the  main  portion  goes  thru  the 
sterilizer  by-pass  SB  and  then  back  to  the  pool. 
While  this  is  the  outfit  in  use  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  pools  where  re-filtration  is  used,  the 


proper  refiltration  it  has  proved  by  test  to  be 
purer  than  the  average  drinking  water  as  drawn 
from  the  faucet  in  the  cities  of  the  country. 

Where  the  electric  sterilizer  is  used  a  box  is 
usually  placed  at  some  high  point  into  which 
the  water  is  pumped  and  then  after  passing  thru 
the  ultra-violet  rays  overflows  into  the  pipe 
leading  down  to  the  pool  inlet.    Such  an  equip- 


L           1           jL     ^-' 

P  LA/SI 


ELEVATIO/^ 
Fig.  139. 


electric  type  of  sterilizer  has  made  such  great 
strides  in  recent  years  and  has  produced  results 
60  remarkable  that  it  deserves  most  emphatic 
recommendation.  This  apparatus  employs  an 
electric  lamp  emitting  invisible  ultra-violet  rays 
to  kill  all  germs  in  the  pool  water  which  is  forced 
to  flow  past  within  the  required  distance  of  the 
lamp.  After  water  has  been  in  use  sometimes 
for  as  long  as  three  years  with  this  sterilizer  and 
7 


ment  is  shown  in  Fig.  138  where  a  plan  view 
and  two  cross  sections  are  given.  The  water 
is  pumped  into  the  box  thru  the  inlet  I  and 
enters  compartment  A ',  from  compartment  A  to 
compartment  B  the  only  connection  is  by  means 
of  a  rounded  opening  in  the  middle  of  which 
opening  the  quartz  lamp  is  set.  To  make  assur- 
ance doubly  sure  a  similar  partition  and  lamp 
are  placed  between  compartment  B   and  com- 


98 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


partment  C  so  that  the  germs  must  twice  run 
the  gauntlet  of  electrocution.  The  water  passes 
from  chamber  A  to  chamber  B  thru  the  open- 
ing, and  then  to  chamber  0  thru  the  second 
opening.  In  chamber  C  the  water  overflows 
into  the  outlet  pipe  O  which  carries  it  down  to 
the  pool  inlets. 

It  is  also  recommended  that  a  scum  gutter  be 
provided  for  the  pool  in  any  case.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  with  re-filtration  properly  carried  on 
there  is  little  or  no  scum  to  take  care  of  and 
water  splashed  into  the  scum  gutter  is  lost  by 
going  down  the  overflow.  Yet  if,  at  any  time, 
it  is  desired  or  necessary  to  operate  the  pool 
without  the  use  of  the  filter,  this  can  be  done 
in  a  much  better  manner  by  using  the  scum 
gutter  and  overflowing  the  water  into  it. 

The  gutter  itself  is  formed  in  sections  of 
glazed  terra  cotta  blocks  with  drain  pipes  con- 
nected every  twenty  feet  or  so.  Its  use  not  only 
frees  the  pool  itself  from  scum,  etc.,  on  the  sur- 
face but  it  also  catches  all  drippage  from  the 
pool  room  floor  that  would  otherwise  run  down 
the  sides  of  the  pool  and  help  contaminate  the 
water. 

The  piping  for  the  overflows  consists  of  2  in. 
or  3  in.  drain  pipes  carried  down  and  united 
into  a  4  in.  overflow  line  which  is  carried  out 
and  connected  to  the  pool  drain  beyond  the  drain 
valve.  From  a  sanitary  standpoint  it  is  much 
better  to  carry  the  overflows  immediately  to  a 
trap  located  just  below  the  scum  gutter,  and  in 
some  cities  this  is  an  absolute  requirement. 
There  are  manifest  disadvantages  to  this  as  can 
be  readily  seen  on  account  of  the  traps  being 
located  in  the  solid  masonry  walls  of  the  pool 
and  requiring  cleanouts  in  the  pool  room  floor. 
It  is  therefore  common  practice  and  is  generally 
permissible  to  pipe  the  overflow,  as  shown  in 
the  plan  and  elevation  given  in  Fig.  139,  where 
O  indicates  overflows  and  CO.  cleanouts. 

The  valve  on  the  drain  is  necessarily  located 
below  the  pool  bottom  and  should  be  placed  in 
a  manhole  to  make  access  possible.  The  handle 
may  be  extended  up  to  a  point  just  under  the 
manhole  cover  or — if  the  manhole  is  in  an  unim- 
portant position — may  even  be  extended  thru 
the  cover  with  the  wheel  mounted  above  the 
fl.oor. 

Now  as  to  cost :  The  average  pool  room  should 
be  about  75  ft.  long,  35  ft.  wide  and  not  less 
than  10  ft.  high;  this  gives  a  cubic  footage  of 
26,250  cubic  feet  which,  at  20  cents  per  cubic 
foot,  means  a  cost  of  $5,250  for  housing  the 
pool.     To  build  a  modern  pit  for  a  pool  includ- 


ing walls,  waterproofing,  enameled  brick,  scum 
gutters,  etc.,  amounts  to  $3,000  to  $4,000,  The 
piping,  valves,  heater,  pump,  etc.,  will  run  to 
$750;  a  filter  capable  of  properly  handling  a 
50,000  gallon  pool  about  $1,500  including  co- 
agulant feed  and  chemical  sterilizer;  an  electric 
sterilizer  will  cost  about  as  much  as  a  filter  but 
cannot  be  substituted  for  it. 

This  gives  approximations  as  follows: 
Pool  without  filtration — 

Pool  pit $3,500 

Piping    500 

Pool  with  re-filtration  plant —  ' 

Filters $1,500 

Additional  pipe 500 

2,000 

Pool  with  electric  sterilization—  $6,000 

Sterilizer   $1,500     _,  „. . 

l,oUU 

$7,500 

It  can  readily  be  seen  from  this  that  even  the 
cheapest  pool  is  pretty  expensive  and  a  good 
pool  is  only  more  so.  Still,  if  a  pool  is  to  be 
installed,  by  all  means  put  in  a  good  installa- 
tion and  do  not  render  a  questionable  service  to 
the  community  by  providing  a  disease  carrier 
and  germ  developer  in  its  midst. 

All  boards  operating  pools  in  their  schools 
will  do  well  to  follow  the  nine  commandments 
laid  down  in  a  paper  recently  read  before  the 
American  Association  for  Promoting  Hygienic 
and  Public  Baths.    They  are  as  follows: 

1.  Maintain  the  water  in  the  pool  pure  and 
clear;  employing  both  refiltration  and  chemical 
disinfection. 

2.  Have  the  pool  well  lighted;  natural  light 
by  day — sunlight  when  possible. 

3.  Keep  an  attendant  always  on  duty  when 
the  pool  is  in  use;  prohibit  admission  at  other 
times ;  allow  no  one  to  enter  the  pool  alone. 

4.  Maintain  a  strict  supervision  of  the  bath- 
ers, medical  examination  if  practicable;  pre- 
venting persons  with  communicable  diseases 
from  entering  the  pool. 

5.  Enforce  the  scrubbing  of  each  bather  be- 
fore entering  pool. 

6.  Prevent  all  clothing  or  provide  sterilized 
clothing. 

7.  Surround  the  pool  with  a  scum  gutter  and 
prevent  expectoration  in  or  about  the  pool. 

8.  Prevent  visitors  carrying  dirt  and  disease 
germs  on  their  footwear  into  the  pool  room. 

9.  Do  not  have  any  obstruction  in  the  pool, 
or  along  the  edge  of  the  pool,  nor  adjacent  to 
the  pool. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


Electric  Lighting 


The  importance  of  providing  for  the  proper 
lighting  of  classrooms  is  one  which  should  not 
be  underestimated.  The  need  of  illumination 
for  day  classes  on  dark  days  and  the  require- 
ments of  night  schools  both  combine  to  render 
satisfactory  lighting  an  essential  of  schoolhouse 
planning  and  equipment.  It  is  not  within  the 
province  of  this  discussion  to  argue  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  eye,  or  the  diseases  resulting  from 
a  lack  of  proper  or  sufficient  lighting.  These 
topics  are  distinctly  within  the  province  of  the 
school  hygienist,  the  physician  and  the  oculist. 
It  may  not  be  out  of  place,  however,  to  note  that 
the  eyes  of  average  pupils  are  subjected  to  their 
first  concentrated  use  in  the  schoolroom  and  that 
the  eyes  of  children  of  school  age  are  only  in  the 
transitory  period  of  growth  succeeding  baby- 
hood and  are  far  from  possessing  the  visual 
strength  which  is  acquired  in  later  life.  Eye 
troubles  developed  during  this  time  are  likely  to 
become  chronic  weaknesses  later  and  should  be 
carefully  guarded  against. 

There  are  in  all  some  twenty-one  million 
school  children  in  the  United  States  of  whom 
not  less  than  two  million  are  troubled  by  defec- 
tive vision.  Of  course,  this  is  a  dry  and  statis- 
tical statement.  Yet  the  fact  is  conducive  to 
thought,  even  tho  it  does  not  necessarily  follow 
that  these  two  million  pupils  are  visually  defec- 
tive on  account  of  poor  light  in  the  schools. 
Some  children  develop  eye  troubles  before  en- 
tering school  and  still  others  abuse  their  eyes 
by  overstudy  or  by  other  means  for  which  the 
schools  could  not  possibly  be  held  responsible. 
But  admitting  that  the  trouble  is  there,  it  cer- 
tainly should  not  be  aggravated  in  the  classroom 
A\here  the  school  boards  are  responsible. 

Artificial  illumination  has  always  been  de- 
signed with  the  idea  of  producing  a  condition 
approximating  sunlight.  How  poorly  such  an 
approximation  really  is  (when  obtained  from 
various  sources  of  artificial  light)  the  reader  is 
fully  aware  of,  yet  the  modern  systems  of  light- 
ing.' more  nearly  approach  such  an  ideal  condi- 
tion than  any  methods  previously  developed. 

The  natural  lighting  of  the  modern  classroom 
has  worked  down  to  a  fairly  consistent  design  in 


which  the  windows  equal  in  area  14  to  25  per 
cent  of  the  floor  area  and  are  arranged  on  the 
left-hand  side.  It  has  been  recommended  by 
experts  on  illumination  that  the  depth  of  class- 
rooms (perpendicular  to  the  window  wall)  should 
not  be  greater  than  twice  the  height  of  the  win- 
dow above  the  top  of  the  desks;  also  that  the 
walls  be  light  colored  and  the  ceiling  white. 
With  such  design  the  most  satisfactory  results 
will  be  obtained,  and  the  light  walls  and  white 
ceiling  will  also  assist  the  artificial  illumina- 
tion. 

Other  items  also  enter  into  the  matter  of 
making  artificial  light  satisfactory.  Installa- 
tions, perfectly  correct  so  far  as  design  may  be 
concerned,  will  give  considerable  trouble  and 
result  in  much  unnecessary  eye  strain  if  other 
matters  are  not  made  to  harmonize  with  the  end 
in  view.  For  instance,  the  use  of  highly  glazed 
paper  in  the  school  books  is  bound  to  fatigue  the 
eye  in  a  very  short  time,  regardless  of  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  lighting.  The  size  of  type, 
the  spacing  of  lines,  the  color  of  print  and  paper 
similarly  affect  the  eye.  Still  worse,  is  the  con- 
stant reflection  from  highly  polished  desks, 
glazed  walls  and  glazed  blackboards. 

The  development  and  perfecting  of  the  tung- 
sten filament  for  the  incandescent  electric  light 
have  revolutionized  lighting  in  the  last  few 
years.  The  tungsten  lamp  has  produced  a  whiter 
light,  far  more  nearly  approximating  sunlight 
than  the  old  carbon  filament.  It  does  this  at  a 
cost  of  about  31  per  cent  of  what  the  old  carbon 
filament  required,  when  compared  candle  power 
for  candle  powei*.  It  has  made  commercially 
practical  the  "indirect"  method  of  illiunination 
which,  while  vastly  superior  to  the  old  direct 
style,  is  not  as  efficient  a  method  of  illumina- 
tion. That  is  to  say,  it  takes  more  current  for 
ii- direct  lighting  but  the  rays  are  so  diffused  as 
to  make  such  lighting  very  desirable. 

There  are  three,  general  methods  of  lighting 
consisting  of: 

(a)  Direct  illumination,  in  which  the  light 
shines  directly  on  the  surface  illuminated. 

(b)  Indirect  illumination,  in  which  the  source 
of  light  is  entirely  concealed  by  a  shade  and  the 


99 


100 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


illuminating  effect  is  secured  by  reflection  from 
some  white  diffusing  surface  which  is  usually 
the  ceiling,  and 

(c)  Semi-direct  illumination,  in  which  the 
majority  of  the  light  is  indirect  but  a  portion  of 
the  shade  is  made  translucent  so  that  the  balance 
is  "direct,"  but  Avell  diffused. 

Diffusion  of  light  is  accomplished  by  breaking 
up  the  rays  of  light  emitted  from  one  or  several 
sources  so  as  to  have  a  more  even  light  of  lesser 
brilliancy  emitted  from  a  larger  area  than  the 
prime  source.  A  clear  glass  globe  gives  prac- 
tically no  diffusion  but  the  same  globe  in  frosted 
glass  diffuses  to  a  very  satisfactory  extent. 

In  Fig.  140  is  shown  a  standard  type  of  direct 
lighting  fixture  which  is  inexpensive  and  of  good 
design.  In  this  case  a  glass,  metal  or  porcelain 
reflector  may  be  used  and  the  rays  of  light  from 
the  lamp  are  thrown  directly  down  onto  the  floor 
and  furniture.  The  use  of  this  fixture  in  long 
corridors,  stairways,  wardrobes  and  similar  cir- 
culation passages,  where  the  lights  are  almost 
always  burning  but  where  no  one's  eyes  are  ex- 
posed to  the  light  for  any  long  period  of  time,  is 
recommended  owing  to  the  high  efficiency  of  the 
direct  light. 

Fig.  141  is  a  similar  fixture  with  a  bowl  of 
translucent  glass  which  tends  to  diffuse  the  light 
to  a  great  extent.  This  fixture  is  recommended 
for  such  rooms  as  the  principal's  main  office, 
waiting  room,  medical  examination  room  and 
similar  locations  where  pupils  or  instructors  may 
have  their  eyes  subjected  to  the  light  for  longer 
periods. 

Fig.  142  is  a  frosted  or  semi-transparent  shade 
covering  lights  where  the  headroom  is  low  as 
under  stairways,  etc.,  and  where  longer  fixtures 
would  be  in  the  way. 


Fig.  143  indicates  a  fixture  with  an  opaque 
nietal  reflector  that  throws  all  the  light  up  to 
the  ceiling  from  which  it  is  reflected  downward. 
This  is  the  common  type  of  indirect  fixture  and 
is  recommended  for  classrooms,  art  rooms,  dress- 
making, typewriting  rooms,  etc.,  including  all 
places  where  pupils  are  likely  to  be  subjected  to 
artificial  light  for  long  periods.  Its  chief  disad- 
vantage consists  of  the  rather  dark  and  gloomy 
ai>pearance  of  the  under  part  of  the  reflector. 

Fig.  144  shows  a  type  of  semi -indirect  fixture  in 
which  the  illumination  of  the  glass  bowl  results 
in  some  light  passing  directly  downward  while 
the  balance  is  reflected  onto  the  ceiling  by  the 
bowl  the  same  as  in  the  indirect  fixture  just  dis- 
cussed. This  fixture  is  recommended  where  the 
cost  of  current  is  an  important  feature.  With 
less  cvirrent  consumption,  the  lighting  results  of 
this  fixture  are  almost  as  satisfactory  as  with 
the  purely  indirect  fixtures. 

Besides  the  ones  illustrated,  there  are  other 
derived  variations  and  designs  for  fixtures  ad 
infinitum.  All  are  based  on  the  types  of  fixtures 
shown  and  on  combinations  thereof.  Many  such 
fixtures  possess  real  merit  but  it  is  impossible 
to  discuss  all  here.  Their  characteristics  are 
largely  the  same  or  similar  to  the  typical  fixtures 
already  cited. 

After  the  question  of  fixtures  is  decided  the 
matter  of  their  location  becomes  imperative. 
Usually  school  authorities  do  this  backwards; 
tliat  is,  they  locate  the  outlets  long  before  they 
know  what  kind  of  fixtures  will  be  purchased. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  the  outlets  must  be  located 
^hen  a  building  is  built  and — right  or  wrong — 
they  are  therefore  located. 

It  has  been  proven  by  experience  that  for  the 
standard  sized  classroom  measuring  up  to  24  ft. 


Fig.  140. 


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MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


by  32  ft.,  or  thereabouts,  four  outlets  will  give 
fair,  six  good,  and  nine  excellent  results  with 
direct  illumination.  With  the  four  outlets,  150- 
watt  lamps  are  generally  used,  giving  600  watts 
for  the  room.  With  six  outlets,  100  watts  are 
usually  installed  giving  600  watts  for  the  room. 
With  nine  outlets,  lamps  of  60  watts  each,  or 
540  watts,  are  sufficient.  Philadelphia,  New 
York  and  Boston  use  nine  outlets,  and  twelve 
are  unusual  but  not  unknown.  With  direct 
lighting  the  effect  of  nine  60-watt  lamps  is  much 
easier  on  the  eyes  than  six  100  or  four  150-watt 
lamps,  as  the  nine  outlets  distribute  the  sources 
of  light  and  render  the  illumination  more  even. 
With  indirect  fixtures  four  outlets  should  be 
enough,  but  the  new  gas  filled  lamps  of  200-watt 
size  should  be  used.  As  a  general  thing  when 
outlets  must  be  installed  before  the  kind  of 
lighting  is  decided  upon  six  outlets  are  adopted, 
these  being  very  satisfactory  for  direct  fixtures 
and  ideal  for  indirect  or  semi-indirect  work. 

It  might  be  explained  parenthetically  here 
that  common  tungsten  and  carbon  filament 
lamps  raise  their  filament  or  incandescence  in 
a  vacuum  of  more  or  less  perfect  intensity.  The 
lamps  known  as  "gas  filled"  raise  their  filaments 
to  incandescence  with  the  aid  of  a  gas,  inside 
a  gas-tight  bulb;  hence  the  term  "gas  filled." 
Gas  filled  lamps  are  entirely  too  bright  for 
direct  lighting,  being  used  in  the  larger  unit 
sizes,  for  indirect  and  semi-indirect  fixtures. 
One  150-watt  vacuum  bulb  is  generally  consid- 
ered as  approximating  one  100-watt  gas  filled 
lamp. 

From  this  it  can  be  deduced  that  the  current 
per  classroom  for  various  combinations  will  run 
about  as  follows: 

Method  of  Approx.  Watts 

Illumination  Type  of  Bulb  Per  Room 

Direct  Lights  Vacuum  Tungsten  600 

Indirect  or  Vacuum  Tungsten  900 

Serai-indirect  Gas  Filled  Tungsten        800 

This  means  that  while  indirect  lighting  adds 
over  50  per  cent  to  the  candle  power,  gas  filled 
bulbs  cut  the  current  per  candle  power  to  about 
50  per  cent,  thus  making  the  actual  increase  in 
current  consumption  over  direct  lighting  only 
about  30  per  cent.  With  indirect  and  semi- 
indirect  illumination  it  is  necessary  that  the  fix- 
tures be  installed  so  as  to  bring  the  top  of  the 
glass  approximately  three  feet  from  the  ceiling 
in  rooms  eleven  to  fourteen  feet  high. 


It  should  be  pointed  out  here  that  while  in- 
direct and  semi-indirect  fixtures  approximate 
ideal  lighting  they  have  certain  objections  pecu- 
liar to  school  work.  The  objections  have  been 
regarded  so  seriously  as  to  prohibit  their  adop- 
tion in  at  least  one  case,  viz..  New  York  City, 
and  there  are  others  who  have  had  similar 
troubles. 

These  faults  mainly  lie  in  the  fact  that  the 
pupils  find  the  fixtures  good  receivers  for  paper 
wads,  erasers,  pencils,  rubbers,  waste  paper,  etc. 
Difficulty  is  also  experienced  in  making  the 
janitors  keep  the  bowls  clean,  as  these  are  con- 
cealed from  view,  and  very  rapidly  collect  dust. 
This  dust,  if  not  removed  obscures  the  light  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  reduce  the  efficiency  50  per 
cent. 

For  the  proper  location  of  outlets  the  room 
should  be  divided  into  as  many  rectangles  as 
outlets,  and  an  outlet  should  be  placed  in  the 
center  of  each  rectangle.  Some  school  boards 
make  it  a  practice  to  set  the  lights  slightly  off 
center — toward  the  windows — so  as  to  have  the 
artificial  light  rays  fall  on  an  angle  somewhat 
in  imitation  of  the  natural  rays  of  light  from 
the  windows.  It  is  of  course  impossible  to  actu- 
ally produce  enough  change  of  angle  to  be  of 
any  importance  and  the  location  of  the  outlets 
in  such  unbalanced  positions  makes  a  very  bad 
appearance  in  the  room.  One  economy  which 
CAcry  board  may  practice  is  that  of  putting  the 
row  of  lights  along  the  windows  on  a  separate 
switch.  There  are  many  dark  days  when  there 
may  be  plenty  of  light  adjacent  to  the  windows 
but  not  farther  away.  In  this  case  the  farther 
outlets  only  are  used.  The  lights  along  the 
windows  are  on  a  second  switch  and  are  used 
only  at  night  and  on  very  dark  days. 

The  arrangement  of  outlets  for  a  classroom 
having  four  lights,  together  with  the  wiring  and 
switches  for  the  same,  is  shown  in  Fig.  145.  The 
more  common  six  light  classroom  is  shown  in 
Fig.  146  which  also  indicates  a  floor  outlet  for 
the  teacher's  desk.  The  room  with  nine  outlets 
is  shown  in  Fig.  147,  but  this  arrangement  is 
seldom  used.  In  all  cases  the  lights  in  the  coat 
rooms  should  be  on  a  separate  switch.  Where 
two  coat  rooms  are  adjacent  one  light  can  be 
made  to  do  for  both  by  using  a  dwarf  partition 
and  installing  the  light  high  and  directly  over 
the  partition. 

It  has  also  become  the  practice  in  some  cities 
to  place  a  floor  outlet  under  the  teacher's  desk 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 


103 


to  allow  for  the  use  of  a  desk  lamp,  if  desired. 
In  such  cases  the  outlet  is  made  in  a  box,  flush 
with  the  floor,  into  which  an  extension  cord  for 
the  desk  lamp  is  plugged.  Such  outlets  are  in- 
stalled only  with  direct  lighting.  In  some  schools 
in  which  visual  instruction  is  emphasized  a  wall 
plug  is  provided  in  the  rear  of  the  room  for  a 
small  stereopticon. 

In  corridors,  of  course,  illuminating  require- 
ments are  not  so  exacting,  being  only  one-third 
to  one-fourth  the  requirements  of  classrooms, 
and  outlets  are  seldom  spaced  over  40  feet  apart. 
Usually  100-watt  lamps  are  employed  spaced 
about  30  feet  apart.  Shorter  spacing  and  smaller 
units  (60  watts  or  less)  will  give  more  uniform 
light  than  longer  spacing  and  higher  powered 
lamps,  but  the  first  cost  is  greater. 


In  lecture  rooms  the  light  should  be  particu- 
larly good  at  the  front  of  the  room  where  experi- 
ments will  be  carried  on  and  at  the  rear  an 
outlet  of  5,000  watts  capacity  is  usually  pro- 
vided for  stereopticon  use. 

It  is  also  a  good  idea  in  locating  wall  switches 
to  place  them  six  feet  from  the  floor  to  prevent 
their  manipulation  by  the  younger  pupils. 

For  those  interested  in  the  eccentric  location 
of  outlets  for  classrooms  the  plan  shown  in  Fig. 
148  is  given.  Here  the  normal  locations  of  a  six 
light  arrangement  are  shown  in  dotted  lines  and 
the  eccentric  locations  are  indicated  in  full  lines, 
the  distance  between  the  normal  centers  and  the 
modified  centers  being  given  in  each  direction. 


CHAPTER  XVI 11 


Vacuum  Cleaning 


The  newest  mechanical  equipment  to  be  al- 
most universally  adopted  for  school  use  is  that 
for  vacuum  cleaning.  The  modern  vacuum 
cleaning  machine  is  a  distinctly  recent  develop- 
ment and  because  there  are  comparatively  few 
buildings  in  which  vacuum  cleaning  has  been 
installed  for  any  great  length  of  time,  there  is 
but  little  practical  data  on  the  subject.  The 
results  obtained  depend  largely  on  the  individ- 
ual operator,  and  few  school  boards  have  enough 
machines  in  service  to  give  any  fair  comparison 
between  them.  Still  fewer  school  boards  have 
made  any  effort  to  compare  the  results  which 
have  so  far  been  reached.  While  much  testing 
has  been  done  by  the  individual  manufacturers 
of  the  various  makes  of  apparatus  their  con- 
clusions cannot  be  accepted  as  wholly  unbiased, 
and  with  the  exception  of  tests  made  by  the 
federal  goverment  there  is  little  data  of  depend- 
able nature. 

Some  information  on  the  use  of  vacuum 
cleaning  in  schools  has  been  collected  by  the 
author  and  will  undoubtedly  be  a  help  to  those 
who  are  not  familiar  with  this  kind  of  equip- 
ment. 

In  the  first  place  vacuum  cleaning,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  a  system  of  cleaning  by  means  of  a 
vacuum — partial  vacuum  would  be  more  correct 
• — and  is  suitable  for  the  removal  of  dust, 
snialler  particles  of  refuse  and  other  material 
such  as  sand,  small  nails,  matches,  splinters, 
etc.  This  removal  is  effected  without  causing 
the  slightest  dust  to  fly  and  settle  at  some  other 
objectionable  point. 

In  order  to  operate  such  a  system  a  vacuum 
producer  (or  machine),  a  system  of  piping,  a 
flexible  hose,  and  various  cleaning  tools  are 
necessary.  The  vacuum  producer  exhausts  the 
air  of  the  piping  system  thus  producing  the 
required  degree  of  vacuum.  The  flexible  hose 
connected  to  the  various  outlets  on  the  pipe 
lines  serves  to  carry  the  vacuum  from  the  pipe 
outlet  to  the  desired  cleaning  point,  and  the 
actual  removal  of  the  dirt  is  accomplished  by 
the  cleaning  tool  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
hose. 

The  theory  of  operation  is  that  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  (which  is  about  14  pounds 
per  square  inch)  tends  to  drive  the  air  into  the 


end  of  the  cleaning  tool  where  the  vacuum  open- 
ing is  located  and  thus  to  diminish  or  entirely 
break  the  vacuum.  As  the  machine  on  the  other 
end  of  the  piping  is  constantly  withdrawing  the 
air,  the  vacuum,  however,  is  not  entirely  broken 
by  the  continuous  rush  of  air.  The  constant 
continuance  of  this  action  makes  possible  clean- 
ing by  vacuum. 

If  the  vacuum  opening  in  the  end  of  the  tool 
is  laid  against  a  piece  of  carpet,  rug,  or  even 
the  bare  floor  the  obstruction  acts  as  a  plug 
and  causes  the  air  to  enter  the  opening  thru 
every  possible  leak  either  around  the  opening 
or  thru  the  material  itself.  During  its  passage 
into  the  tool  the  air  engages  every  particle  of 
loose  dust  and  dirt  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
opening.  The  action  is  much  like  the  winter 
wind  blowing  the  ground  clear  of  snow  in  spots 
vs'here  the  fury  of  the  gale  is  concentrated. 
Vacuum  cleaning,  however,  will  not  remove  ink 
spots,  stains,  grease  or  other  similar  uncleanli- 
ness;  it  is  able  to  carry  only  loose  particles  of 
dry  matter. 

Vacuum  cleaning  systems  are  generally 
classed  as  "high"  vacuum  or  "low"  vacuum, 
according  to  the  degree  of  vacuum  maintained 
by  the  machine,  and  as  "large  volume"  or 
"small  volume,"  according  to  the  amount  of  air 
handled  per  "sweeper."  The  size  of  the  plant 
is  based  on  the  number  of  "sweepers"  or  tools 
which  the  machine  can  operate  effectively  at 
one  time.  Thus  a  "two  sweeper"  plant  can 
operate  two  tools  run  by  two  different  men  from 
any  two  outlets  desired,  but  will  not  be  able  to 
remove  the  air  as  fast  as  three  sweepers  would 
admit  it.  Three  sweepers  on  a  "two  sweeper" 
plant  would  result  in  a  loss  of  vacuum  on  the 
whole  system  to  so  great  an  extent  as  to  put 
all  the  tools  out  of  commission.  The  effect  is 
the  same  as  putting  too  many  faucets  on 'a 
small  water  pipe  resulting  in  a  great  loss  of 
pressure  when  all  are  opened  and  a  consequent 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  water  delivered  by 
each. 

A  "high"  vacuum  plant  is  one  which  operates 
at  a  vacuum  equal  to  about  10  or  12  inches  of 
mercury  (5  pounds  per  sq.  in.  less  than  atmos- 
phere) while  a  "low"  vacuum  system  operates 
on  about  5  or  6  inches  of  mercury  (2V2  pounds 


104 


VACUUM  CLEANING 


105 


per  sq.  in.  less  than  atmospliere) .  While  high 
vacuum  is  more  effective  for  thick  carpets,  rugs, 
upholstery,  etc.,  it  has  little,  if  any,  advantage 
for  bare  floor  cleaning. 

An  excellent  form  of  tool  for  bare  floor  work 
is  shown  in  Fig.  149.  It  is  provided  with  slots 
to  prevent  the  pads  from  sticking  too  tightly  to 
the  floor  on  account  of  the  vacuum  suction. 
To  get  into  corners  a  rubber  pointed  tube  which 
is  equally  efficient  to  clean  desk  boxes,  pigeon 
holes  and  other  small  places  is  used.  The  hold- 
ers for  the  tools  are  generally  of  aluminum  and 
are  hollow,  so  that  the  air  and  dirt  passes  thru 
the  handle  to  the  hose  connected  at  the  upper 
end.  The  size  of  the  hose  may  be  1%  inch,  but 
1^/^  inch  is  better  as  it  reduces  the  friction 
loss — an  important  factor  in  low  vacuum  sys- 
tems. 


on  the  opposite  side  of  the  building.  This 
arrangement  still  leaves  the  middle  portion  be- 
yond reach  of  the  hose.  Therefore,  outlet  V. 
C.  O.  No.  4  is  placed  in  the  corridor  on  the 
center  line  of  the  building,  and  the  radius  from 
this  outlet  covers  the  balance  of  the  building. 
Theoretically  these  outlets  would  be  sufficient 
but  they  must  be  tested  out  for  the  location  of 
doors  to  see  that  the  hose  will  reach  when  run 
around  the  actual  path  which  it  must  follow. 
On  outlet  No,  1  it  is  found  that  the  hose  will 
not  quite  reach  to  the  extreme  corner  of  the 
lower  lefthand  classroom;  but  the  distance  is  so 
small  that  the  tool  length  (4  ft.  0  in.)  may  be 
counted  upon  to  cover  the  dotted  space.  A 
similar  laying  out  of  hose  thru  the  offices  O  and 
the  toilet  T  from  outlets  Nos.  1  and  2  shows  no 
trouble;  but  on  outlet  No.  4  it  is  found  impos- 


re// 


Fig.  149. 


The  piping  for  vacuum  cleaning  must  be  run 
so  as  to  have  outlets  at  certain  convenient 
points.  These  points  are  located  on  the  various 
floors  directly  over  one  another  so  that  one  verti- 
cal riser  will  serve  one  or  two  outlets  on  each 
floor  without  any  horizontal  piping.  As  a  typi- 
cal example  the  plan  of  the  small  school  shown 
ill  Fig.  150  may  be  taken  to  determine  the  loca- 
tion of  the  vacuum  cleaning  outlets.  In  the 
drawing,  C  indicates  classrooms,  A  auditorium, 
O  office,  TR  teachers'  room  and  T  toilet. 

Beginning  at  the  lower  lefthand  corner  a 
circle  can  be  swung  with  a  fifty  foot  radius 
(the  desirable  length  of  hose)  the  center  of  the 
circle  being  at  the  vacuum  cleaning  outlet  V. 
C.  O.  No.  1.  It  is  found  that  this  circle  will 
not  cover  the  entire  lefthand  end  of  the  build- 
ing so  another  outlet,  V.  C.  O.  No.  2  is  placed 
so  that  its  50  foot  radius  will  cover  the  balance 
of  this  end  of  the  building.  Similar  outlets 
V.  C.  O.  No.  5  and  V.  C.  0.  No.  6  are  located 


sible  to  get  into  the  auditorium  A.  Neither 
will  hose  run  from  outlets  Nos.  1  or  6  cover  it. 
Consequently  another  outlet  in  the  auditorium 
(No.  4a)  is  necessary  to  cover  the  dotted  por- 
tion shown.  Had  the  auditorium  been  provided 
with  a  door  near  outlet  No.  4,  the  hose  could 
have  been  run  thru  the  door  and  outlet  No.  4a 
omitted.  Trouble  also  develops  in  the  rear 
classroom  between  outlets  No.  4  and  5  but  the 
portion  not  covered  (shown  dotted)  is  so  small 
that  the  length  of  tool  may  again  be  considered 
sufficient  to  make  up  the  required  distance. 

In  the  basement  (Fig.  151)  the  lines  are  con- 
nected together  into  a  main  fitted  with  clean- 
outs,  (C.  O.)  and  to  the  vacuum  cleaning  mach- 
ine. In  the  machine  the  air  and  dirt  are  sepa- 
rated, the  air  escaping  usually  into  a  fine  or 
outdoors,  but  sometimes,  on  small  machines,  in- 
to the  basement  itself.  The  piping  should  all 
be  black  iron  with  recessed  screwed  drainage 
fittings  to  avoid  clogging.    The  cleanouts  should 


106 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


\ 


^\  / 


^fr^^-^-^—m 


1 


Fig.   150. 


1 I 


Fig.  151. 


VACUUM  CLEANING 


107 


be  brass  plugs  screwed  into  the  pipe  fittings. 
It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  have  cleanout  Ys'  in 
any  long  straight  run  say  at  fifty  foot  intervals 
to  permit  easy  access  in  case  of  trouble.  Flan- 
ges as  shown  at  "FLG,"  Fig.  152  also  permit 
disconnecting  when  desired. 


Fig.  152. 

The  elevation  of  the  typical  riser  shown  in 
Fig.  152  shows  how  the  piping  is  run  to  the 
upper  floor,  picking  up  the  first  floor  outlet  on 
the  way  down.     Some  engineers  advocate  that 


'^BfOSS  P/uf 


Fig.  153. 


Fig.   154. 


no  riser  or  main  be  less  than  2%  inches  in  size 
so  that  matches  cannot  become  lodged  cross- 
wise in  the  pipe  as  they  are  liable  to  in  the 
smaller  sizes. 

In  putting  in  vacuum  cleaning  piping  several 
points  should  be  kept  in  mind:  Install  clean- 
outs  as  shown  in  Fig.  153  but  never  as  in  Fig. 
154,  as  the  dirt  will  be  thrown  into  the  plug 
pocket  collecting  there  and  gradually  building 
up  a  stoppage  in  the  pipe.  Never  joint  two 
branches  with  a  "bull-head"  tee  as  shown  in 
Fig.  155,  nor  even  with  a  double  Y  as  shown  in 
Fig.  156  as  the  air  will  throw  the  dirt  into  the 
opposite  branch  so  as  to  plug  it  up.  Instead, 
use  two  Y's  as  shown  in  Fig.  157.  Always 
joint  a  branch  to  the  main  with  a  Y  as  shown 
in  Fig.  158  but  never  with  a  tee  as  shown  in 
Fig.  159;  also  see  to  the  very  important  point 
of  having  every  pipe  carefully  reamed  before 
erection  to  avoid  burrs  which  will  catch  lint 
and  dust. 


Usf 


Fig.   155. 


108 


MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


\_L-^j5ro/7  c/7  T-J_3 


Fig.  156. 

Where  outlets  are  put  in  for  basement  use 
they  are  below  the  level  of  the  main  and  must 
pull  the  dirt  up  to  the  level  of  the  main.  This 
is  entirely  practical  but  the  basement  drop 
pipes  must  be  connected  so  that  the  dirt  passing 
thru  the  horizontal  line  cannot  fall  into  it.  A 
connection  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  160  should 
never  be  made.  Either  connect  the  basement 
pipe  hach  of  the  upper  floor  riser  or  bring  it 
into  the  main  sideways  so  that  dirt  will  not 
drop  down  as  it  passes  in  the  main. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  discussion  of  this  kind 
to  recommend  any  particular  machine  for 
school  use  as  there  are  several  good  machines 
on  the  market.  The  most  practical  method  for 
a  board  to  use  is  to  decide  upon  the  number  of 
sweepers  they  will  want  operated  at  one  time 
and  then  to  receive  manufacturer's  proposals 
as  to  the  details  of  their  particular  apparatus, 
power  consumption  under  full  load,  cost,  etc. 
This  gives  the  greatest  opportunity  to  get  a 
good  machine  at  the  lowest  cost  and  will  per- 
mit any  manufacturer  to  compete. 

In  order  to  determine  how  many  sweepers  are 
necessary  something  must  be  known  of  what 


Fig.   157. 

can  be  done  with  one  sweeper.  On  bare  floors 
vacuum  cleaning  is  much  more  rapid  than  with 
carpets  and  an  ordinary  schoolroom  can  be 
cleaned  in  about  fifteen  minutes  so  that  eight 
classrooms  could  be  easily  cleaned  by  one  man 
after  school  sessions.  It  can  also  be  assumed 
that  the  corridors,  special  rooms,  etc.,  can  be 
cleaned  during  school  hours.  Therefore,  the 
sweeper  capacity  will  run  close  to  one  for  every 
eight  classrooms  or  fraction  thereof. 

Another  way  to  figure  is  that  a  good  operator 
can  clean  4,000  sq.  ft.  per  hour.  Allowing  21/2 
hours  for  cleaning  after  sessions,*  would  give 
4,000x21/2,  which  equals  10,000  sq.  ft.  per 
sweeper  capacity. 

The  cost  of  vacuum  cleaning  systems  varies 
widely  with  the  type  of  machine,  length  of  runs, 
etc.  As  an  idea  it  might  be  said  that  a  one 
sweeper  plant  with  piping,  tools,  etc.,  will  cost 
in  the  neighborhood  of  $1,500,  a  two  sweeper, 
$1,800  and  a  three  sweeper,  $2,100. 


p^"*^  K/ser  to  Upper  T/oora 


Qr^ 


J3/^an  ch 


-Tfo/n 

Fig.   158.  Fig.    159 


Sosement 


Fig.  160. 


INDEX 


Aeration,  Swimming  Pool,  93 

Air,  Composition  of,  8;  Pressure  Unbalanced  in  Rooms,  25; 

Standard  for  Lunchroom,  31 
Air-Motor  for  Temperature  Regulation,  22 
Air- Washer,  10 

Alberene  Stone  Fixtures,  34;  Partitions,  48 
Alternating  Current,  89 
Ammonia  Systems  of  Refrigeration,  74-76 
Architects,  7 

Argentine  Glass  Partitions,  48 
Arrangement  of  Lighting  Outlets,  102;  Pool  Equipment,  95; 

Shower    Bath    Stalls,    52;    Toilet    Room    Fixtures,    46; 

Vacuum  Cleaning  Outlets,  105-108  • 

Artesian  Well,  95 
Artificial  Illumination,  99 
Assembly  Room,  Ventilation  of,  19 
Auditorium  Radiators,  21 
Auditorium,  Ventilation  of,  19 
Automatic  Sprinkler  System,  68-71 
Automatic  Temperature  Regulation,  22-24 

Bacteria,  78-82 

Basement  Toilet  Rooms,  44-46 

Baths,  Shower,  93 

Boilers,  86-87;  Hot  Water  Heating,  95 

Bottom-feed  Water  System,  59 

Breathipg  Walls,  17 

Bubblers,  41 

Carbonic  Acid  in  Air,  8 

Centrifugal  Pump,  (Pool),  95;  (Water),  59 

Chemical  Fire  Extinguishers,  71-80 

Chemical  Fume  Exhaust,  30 

Chemical  Laboratory  Hoods,  30 

Chemistry  Laboratory,  Ventilation  of,  28 

Circulation,  Down-feed  System  of  Hot  Water,  61;  Forced 
Hot  Water,  67;  Up-feed  System  of  Hot  Water,  61-63 

Circulation  Pump  for  Drinking  Water,  76;  for  Pool,  95 

Classrooms,  Location  of  Air  Registers  in,  10-12;  Natural 
Lighting,  99 

Cleaning,  Vacuum,  104 

Cleanouts,  Vacuum,  105-107 

Closet,  Local  Vent,  36;  Partitions,  48-50;  Range,  35;  Syphon 
Jet,  35;  Wall  Hung,  37;  Wash-down,  35 

Cloth  Filter,  10 

Coke  Screen,  9 

Compartment,  Shower  Bath,  50-52 

Cooking  Sinks,  42 

Cooling  Water  Tank,  75 

Conditions  of  Swimming  Pools  in  the  United  States,  93 

Construction  of  Swimming  Pools,  93-94 

Contact  Sewage  Disposal  System,  78 

Control  of  Water  Temperature,  66 

Control,  Thermostatic,  24 

Corridors,  Illuminating,  103 

Co-agulant,  91 

Co-agulant  Feeding  Apparatus,  95 

Cost  of  Pool,  98;  Power  Plant,  84;  Power  Plant  Operation, 
85;  Swimming  Pool  Operation,  90-91;  Vacuum  Clean- 
ing Systems,  108 

Current,  Alternating,  89. 

Damper  Regulator,  24 

Damper,  Revolving,  21;  Air  Mixing,  13-14 

Diffusion  of  Light,  100 


Direct  Illumination,  99 

Direct  Lighting  Fixtures,  100 

Disposal  Field,  Sewage,  81 

Disposal  System,  Contact,  78;  Intermittent  Filter,  82-83 

Double  Duct  Systems,  13-14 

Down-feed  System  of  Water  Circulation,  61 

Down  Supply  Systems  of  Ventilation,  21 

Drain  Boards  on  Kitchen  Sinks.  42 

Dressing  Room,  Shower  Bath,  50 

Drinking  Fountains,  40-41,  77 

Drinking  Water,  73 

Duct  Systems,  13-18 

Economy  of  School  Power  Plants,  84-87 

Electric  Current,  84 

Electiic  Sterilizers  (Water),  97-98 

Electric  Power,  84 

Enameled  Iron  Fixtures,  34 

Engineers,  8 

Engines,  87-88 

Exhaust  and  Oil  Separator,  Free,  86 

Exhaust,  Chemical  Fume,  30 

Exhaust  Outlet  in  Toilet  Room,    25;    in    Classroom,    10-12; 

in  Assembly  Halls,  19;  in  Lunchroom,  31 
Extinguishers,  Chemical,  71-80;  Fire,  71-72 

Fan  Room  Arrangement,  9 

Fans,  Toilet  Exhaust,  25 

Faucets,  40 

Fields,  Sewage  Disposal,  81 

Filters,  57;  Coke,  9;  Cloth,  10;  Intermittent  Sand,  78; 
Percolating,  78;  Pool,  91-95;  Pressure,  57 

Fire  Extinguishers,  71-72;  Chemical,  71-80 

Fire  Hose,  68 

Fire  Protection,  School,  68 

Fire  Pump,  71 

Fixtures,  Arrangement  of  Toilet  Room,  46;  Direct  Light- 
ing, 100;  Location  of  Lighting,  100;  Location  of  Plumb- 
ing, 43;  Number  of  Plumbing,  43-44;  Objections  to 
Indirect  and  Semi-indirect  Lighting,  102;  Selection  of 
Plumbing,  32-35;  Semi-indirect  Lighting,  100;  Toilet 
Room,  28 

Flexible  Hose  (Vacuum),  104 

Floor  Outlets,  Lighting,  102-103 

Flues.  17;  Toilet  Exhaust,  25 

Flushing  Devices,  36 

Flush  Valves,  36-37 

Forced  Circulation  of  Hot  Water.  67 

Fountains,  Drinking,  40-41,  77;  Pedestal,  41;  Wall  Hung,  41 

Free  Exhaust  and  Oil  Separator,  86 

Galvanized  Iron  Fixtures,  34 

Gang  Shower,  67 

Gas  Heaters,  63 

General   Considerations   of  School  Swimming  Pool,   90 

Generators,  86;  Motor  Set,  89 

Gravity  Tank,  36,  54-57;  Fire,  71 

Gravity  Ventilation,  17-18 

Gutter,  Scum,  98 

Heaters,  Gas,  63 

Heating,  8 

Heating  Plant,  High  Pressure.  84;  Low  Pressure,  84-86 

Heat,  Steam,  84 

High  Pressure  Heating  Plant,  84 


109 


110 


INDEX —  Continued 


High  Vacuum  Cleaning  System,  104-105 

Hoods,  Chemical  Laboratory,  30-31;  Kitchen,  30-31 

Hose,  Flexible  (Vacuum),  104;  Fire,  68 

Hose  Rack,  70 

Hose  Valve,  70 

Hot  Water  Heating  Boilers,  95 

Hot  Water  Systems,  61 

House  Pump,  87 

House  Tanks  (Water)  59 

Illuminating  Corridors,  103 

Illumination,  Artificial,  99;  Direct,  99;  Indirect,  99-100; 
Semi-indirect,  100 

Importance  of  Proper  T,ighting  of  Classrooms,  99 

Indirect  Illumination,  99-100 

Individual  Duct  Systems,  13-17 

Individual  Shower  Bath  Stall,  50 

Injector,  95 

Intermittent  Filter,  Sewage  Disposal  System,  82-83 

Intermittent  Sand  Filter  System,  78 

Iron,  Enameled  Plumbing  Fixtures,  34;  Galvanized  Fix- 
tures, 34 

Kitchen  and  Slop  Sinks,  41 
Kitchen  Ventilation,  30 

Lamps,  Tungsten,  99 

Lavatories,  Vitreous-Porcelain,  40 

Lecture  Room  Lighting,  103 

Light,  Diffusion  of,  100 

Lighting  Fixture,  Direct,  100;  Indirect,  100;  Semi-indirect, 
100 

Lighting,  Lecture  Ro.om,  103 

Lighting  of  Classrooms,  Importance  of  Proper,  99;  Na- 
tural, 99 

Lighting  Outlets,  101-102;  Arrangement  of,  102;  Location 
of,  102-103 

Light  Intensity,  Standards  of,  102 

Local- Vent  Water  Closet,  36 

Locution  for  Sewage  Disposal  Plant,  Selecting  a,  78 

Location  of  Air  Registers  in  Classrooms,  10-12 

Location  of  Disposal  Field,  82 

Location  of. Exhaust  Outlet  in  Toilet  Room.  25 

Location  of  Exhaust  Registers,  in  Lunchroom,  31;  Lighting 
Fixtures,  100;  Lighting  Outlets,  102-103;  Plumbing 
Fixtures,   43;   Swimming  Pools,   93 

Locker  Rooms,  93 

Low  Pressure  Heating  Plant,  84,  86 

Low   Vacuum   Cleaning   System,    104-105 

Lunchroom,  Location  of  Exhaust  Registers,  31;  Standard  of 
Air,  31 

Marble  Fixtures,  34 

Material  and  Heighth  of  Wainscot  in  Toilet  Room,  48 
Metal  Work  for  Shower  Bath  Partitions,  52-53 
Mixing  Dampers,  Air,  13-14 

Motor,  Air  for  Temperature  Regulation,  22;  Generator 
Set,  89 

Mushroom  Inlets  in  Auditoriums,  19-22 

Natural  Lighting  of  Classroom,  99 
Number  of  Plumbing  Fixtures,  43-44 

Oil  Separator,  Free  Exhaust  and,  86 

Operating  Cost  of  Power  Plant,  85;  Swimming  Pool,  90-91 

Organization  of  Schoolhouse  Construction,  7 

Outlets,  Arrangement  of  Lighting,  102;  Floor,  103;  Vacuum 

Cleaning,    105-108;   Location   of   Lighting,    102-103 
Overflows,  Pool,  98 

Partitions,  Alberene  Stone,  48;  Argentine  Glass,  48;  Closet, 

48-50;  Slate,  48 
Pedestal  Fountains,  41 
Percolating  Filter  System,  78 
Piping,  Installing  Vacuum  Cleaning,  107 


Plumbing,  32 

Plumbing  Fixtures,    Location    of,    43;    Number    of,    43-44; 

Selection  of,  32-35 
Pneumatic  Compression  Tank,  36 
Pneumatic  Tank,  54 

Pneumatic  Water  Supply  Systems,  54-56;  for  Fire,  71 
Pool,  Cost  of  Equipped,  98 
Pool  Equipment,  Arrangement  of,  95 
Porcelain  Lavatories,  40 
Porcelain  Ware,  33 
Power,  Electric,  84 
Power  Plant,  Cost  of,  84;  Economy  of,  84;  Operating  Cost 

of,  85 
Pressure  Filters,  57 
Pressure,  Water,  59-60 
Producer,  Vacuum,  104 
Protection,  School  Fire,  68 
Pump,     Centrifugal     (Pool),     95;     Centrifugal    Water,     59  ; 

Circulation  for  Drinking  Water,  76;  Circulation  (Pool), 

95;  Fire.  71;  House,  87 

Rack,  Hose,  70 

Radiators,  Auditorium,  21 

Range  Water  Closets,  35 

Reducing  Valves,  56-57 

Refrigeration  Systems,  74 

Registers,  Assembly  Halls,  19;  Supply  and  Exhaust,  10-12 

Regulation,  Automatic  Temperature,  22-24 

Regulator,   Damper,  24;  Thermostatic  Hot  Water,  65 

Revolving  Damper  for  Auditorium  Ventilation,  21 

Rooms,  Locker,  93 

Rules  for  Operating  Swimming  Pools,  98 

Sand  Filter  System,  Intermittent,  78 

School  Boards,  7 

Scum  Gutter,  98 

Selection  of  Plumbing  Fixtures,  32-35 

Selecting  a  Location  for  Sewage  Disposal  Plant,  78 

Semi-indirect  Illumination,  100 

Semi-indirect  Lighting  Fixture,  100 

Semi-transparent  Shades,  100 

Separator,    Free  Exhaust  and  Oil,  86 

Septic  Tanks,  78-81 

Sewage,  78-81 

Sewage  Disposal,  Contact  System,  78 

Sewage  Disposal  Plant,  Selecting  a  Location,  78 

Shades,  Semi-transparent,  100 

Shower  Bath  and  Dressing  Room,  50;  Compartment,  50-52 

Shower  Baths,  93 ;  Metal  Work  for  Partitions,  52-53 

Shower,  Gang,  67 

Shower  Mixing  Valve,  65 

Siamese  Outlets,  68-69 

Sinks,  Cooking,  42;  Kitchen  and  Slop,  41 

Slate  Fixtures,  34;  Partitions,  48 

Slop  and  Kitchen  Sinks,  41 

Sprinkler  System,  Automatic,  68-69 

Standard  of  Air  Change,  9;  in  Assembly  Halls,  19;  Lunch- 
room, 31 

Standards  of  Light  Intensity,  102 

Standpipe  System,  68-71 

Steam  Heat,  84 

Sterilizers,  57-59;  Electric,  97-98;  Pool,  91-95;  Ultra-violet 
Ray,  57-59 

Study  Room,  Ventilation  of,  19 

Supply  Registers,  10-12;  Assembly  Halls,  19 

Sweepers,  Vacuum  Cleaning,  104 

Swimming  Pool,  Construction  of,  93-94;  Length  of  Time 
Water  Can  be  Retained  in,  91-93;  Location  of,  93; 
Operating  Cost  of,  90-91;  Pure  Water,  90;  Rules  for 
Operating,  98;  Waterproofing,  94 

Swimming  Pools  in  the  United  States,  Average  Conditions 
of,  93 


mDEX— Continued 


111 


Switches,  Location  of  Wall,  103 
Syphon  Jet  Water  Closet,  35 

Tank.  Cooling  Water,  75;  Gravity,  36,  54-57;  Gravity 
Fire,  71;  Pneumatic,  54;  Pneumatic  Compression,  36; 
Septic,  78-81;  Water  House,  59 

Temperature,  Control  of  Water,  66 

Temperature  Regulation,  Air  Motor  for,  22;  Automatic,  23 

Thermostatic  Control,  24 

Thermostatic  Hot  Water  Regulator,  65 

Toilet  Exhaust  Fans,  25;  Exhaust  Flues,  25 

Toilet,  Normal  Enclosure,  48 

Toilet  Outlets,  Installation  of,  25 

Toilet  Room  Fixtures,  28;  Arrangement  of,  46 

Toilet  Rooms,  Arrangement  of,  4G-47;  Basement,  44-46 

Toilet  Room,  Wainscot,  48 

Toilets,  Ventilation  of,  25-27 

Top-feed  Water  System,  59 

Traps,  32 

Trunk  Line  Duct  System,  13 

Tungsten  Lamps,  99 

Ultra-violet  Ray  Sterilizer,  57-59 

Unbalanced  Air  Pressure  in  Rooms,  25 

Up-feed  System  of  Hot  Water  Circulation,  61-63 

Up  Supply  Sytem  of  Ventilation,  21 

Urinals,  28,  37-40;  Ventilation  of,  40 


Vacuum  Cleaning,  104 

Vacuum   Cleaning   Machine,    Method   of   Purchasing,    108; 

Operation  of,  104 
Vacuum  Cleaning  Sweepers,  104 

Vacuum  Cleaning   System,    High,    104-105;    Low,    104-105; 

Cost  of,  108 
Vacuum  Cleanouts,  105-107 
Vacuum  Producer,  104 

Valves,  Hose,  70;  Shower  Mixing,  65;  Flush,  36-37,  Reduc- 
ing, 56-57 

Ventilating  Toilets,  25-27 

Ventilation,  8;  Auditorium,  19;  Down  and  Up  Supply 
Systems,  21;  Chemistry  Laboratory,  28;  Kitchen,  30; 
Study  Room,  19;  Toilet  Fixtures,  36;  Urinals,  40 

Vitreous  Lavatories,  40 

Vitreous  Ware,  33 

Wainscot  in  Toilet  Room,  Material  and  Heighth  of,  48 

Wall  Hung  Closet,  37 

Wall  Hung  Fountain,  41  i 

Wash-down  Closet,  35 

Water  Cooling  Tank,  75 

Water,  Drinking,  73;  in  School  Swimming  Pools,  90;  Methods 

of  Cooling  Drinking,  74;  Methods  of  Heating,  62-65 
Water  Pressure,  59-60 
Waterproofing,  Swimming  Pools,  94 
Water  Pump,  Centrifugal,  59 
Water  Supply,  54 

Water  Supply  System,  Pneumatic,  54-56;  Fire,  71;  Hot,  61 
Water  Temperature,  Control  of,  66 
Well,  Artesian,  95 


* 


^' 


MAY  13  1919 
"AVIS  f92, 


NOV     6    1931 


FEB  24    1932 


RETURN      CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 
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FORM  NO.  DD  6A,  12m,  6'76         UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 

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